Jain Iconography in Odisha (Introduction)

The genesis of image worship in India has a hoary past and can be safely dated back to Indus Valley Civilization. In Jainism, the Tirthankaras are passionless and liberated from worldly desires. They do not help nor do anything for and on behalf of a devotee. There is ultimate goal for every follower of Jain is to attain nirvana or mokshya. Thus, there is no place for God as the Supreme Being, creator and distributor of happiness and misery, of fruits of action, worship and devotion. Despite this notion, Jainas created images on the basis of their canonical and mythical details because they know that the Tirthankaras have perfect (siddha) soul embodiment with infinite power, knowledge and bliss. The worship of Jain idols was the outcome of the sublimation of human thoughts and instincts and not for obtaining any material rewards but for self-purification. The adoration of gods and goddess in Jainism like Brahmanism and Buddhism started appearing in the religious scene of India. The Jainas initiated adoration of images of their Tirthankaras in the beginning. The main idea for conceiving of images appears that a worshipper of the condition through which a Tirthankara passed to attain salvation or mokshya. With the course of time more and more subordinate deities viz., Yaksha, Yakshi, Naga and Harinegamesi or Naigamesa and others were added in Jainism with the influence of other cult religions prevailed in the contemporary period for obtaining children and to save the worshipper from all calamities^[1].

The parents of Mahavira were the followers of Parsvanatha and during the life time of Mahavira Jivantasvami pratima came into existence which is the earliest reference for idol worship in Jainism^[2]. However, during the time of Samprati, the grandson of Asoka Jain images as cult object already appeared as evidenced by the recovery of highly polished torso of a nude male figure in kayotsarga posture from Lohanipur near Patna^[3]. In the subsequent periods particularly during Sunga-Kushana and Gupta periods image worship became widespread in Jainism.

The Jiana tradition speaks about thirty four atisayas/ super natural qualities of every Jaina. But, asta-pratiharyas or asta-maha-pratiharyas becomes the most needed feature during carving of an image. These pratiharyas include accompanying chauri bearer, throne, kevala tree, halo, chhatravali, vidyadharas/ flying garland bearer, divyadhuni/ heavenly musicians and lanchana. The earliest known texts^[4] like Samavayana Sutra, Vasudevahindi, Tilopannati and Abhidhana Chintamani are describes the atisayas of a Jaina. There are very few minor variations regarding pratiharyas in Digambara and Svetambara works.

Brahat Samhita (58-45) of Varaha Mihira is the earliest datable source which describes the essential feature of a Tirthankara image^[5]. It mentions that the god of the followers of the Arahtas is to be represented as young and beautiful, having a peaceful countenance and the srivatsa mark on his chest, with arms reaching his knees when standing his body is covered by only quarters of directions i.e. he is to be displayed as nude with no garments on his person.

The Manasara (V.71-95), a text on architecture, assigned to circa 6^th century CE^[6] describes that the Tirthankara image should have two arms, two eyes and shaven head with a top knot, there should be no garments and ornaments. Two feet are placed on the lotus seat during seated posture and being in a stiff attitude bears a meditative look on the supreme soul. The palms of the hands should be placed upwards.

However, in Odisha the first hand reference about the possible Jain icon^[7] i.e. Kalinga Jina in the Hati-Gumpha inscriptions which mentions about the removal of Kalinga Jina by a Nanda king of Magadha and subsequently brought back by the Chedi king Kharavela. Besides, this rare reference not a single image of Tirthankara of this period is noticed so far in Odisha. But, evidences of symbol and tree worship are found depicted in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri but not a single Jain Tirthankara appears in the original carvings. The Manchapuri-Gumpha of Udayagiri shows an unidentifiable image being worshipped by a royal family but the icon is untraceable due to the erosion occurred due to the vagaries of nature. The absence of cult images in the early period of Christian era in Odisha makes us believe that the symbol and tree worship are prevalent in Jain tradition of Odisha while in other parts of country witnesses Jain icons particularly at Mathura in north India. The genesis of Image worship started in Odisha at the beginning early medieval period as evidenced by some crude variety of images reported from Keonjhar.

Symbol worship:

Worship of symbols like dharmachakra, manastamba, indradhvaja, chaitya tree, ayagapata and stupas were highly venerated by the follower of Jainas in ancient India. During Kushana period at Mathura^[8] worship of symbols like the chaitya tree, stupa, various stambas, the astamangalas, dharmachakra, ayagapata and triratna sssGumpha of Khandagiri hill respectively depict a tree being worshipped within a railing by devotees. The Hathi-Gumpha inscription of Kharavela is also accompanied with symbols like vaddha mangala, svastika, triangle headed symbol etc^[9]. On the back wall of Ananta-Gumpha at Khandagiri, a nandipada appears on a pedestal flanked on either side by a set of three symbols, a triangle headed one, srivatsa and svastika. One can also noticed similar representation on the Jain ayagapatas found from Mathura of Kushana period. Besides, these symbols are also noticed at the arch bands of Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha, Ananta-Gumpha and Bagha-Gumpha.

Tree worship:

Tree worship formed an important aspect of religious cult both in Buddhism and Jainism. It is well recognized from very ancient past and noticed on Indus seals, Vedic and Brahmanical literature. Tree worship represented either worshipped in its natural form or the tree spirit is personified by encircling a railing or endowed with human shape and human attributes. Tree surrounded with railing has been vividly depicted in the third tympanum of Ananta-Gumpha and in the back wall of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha.^[10] The tree being depicted as sacred symbol honoured by devotees with floral offerings in their hands and garlands carried by flying vidyadharas. In latter Jain sculptures tree become a indispensable element i.e. one of the asta-pratiharyas of Jain images.

The Vyantara deities are sub-divided into eight group^[11] viz., pisachas, bhutas, yakhas, raksasas, kinnaras, kimpurusas, maharagas (nagas) and gandharvas. According to the Svetambara tradition each group of the vyantara deities has on its crest the symbol of a tree in the following order-the kadamba sulasa, vata, khatvanga(svet.-badari), asoka, champak, naga and tumbaru.

Other religious images: A four tusked elephant in low relief flanked by attending elephants carrying lotus stalk and buds at the first tympanum of Ananta-Gumpha. N.K. Sahu suggests the royal elephant with the rain producing white elephant of the Vessantara Jataka which averted drought and famine in Kalinga^[12]. While others identified the elephant with which Trisala saw in her first dream. In one of the inner brackets of the verandah of Alakapuri-Gumpha at the upper cell depicts a four tusked elephant. It is attended by two other elephants, one holding a chhatra (umbrella) and the other a chamara (fly-whisk). The second tympanum of Ananta-Gumpha depicts a royal personage on a chariot drawn by four horses which is identified as Sun god by scholars.

The Jainas has greater emphasis on the worship of mental attitude rather than physical worship or idol worship. Their worship is not confined to any God-head or a deity but of human being who has reached perfection of the soul freed from all bondage.

The different Tirthankaras are identified with the help of lanchanas carved on or below their seats and both the sects give lists of these recognising symbols. For example the fourteenth Jina Ananta, who has the falcon symbol according to Svetambara but the boar according to the Digambaras and the tenth Jina Sitalanatha, who has srivatsa according to Svetambara but svastika according to the Digambaras. Aranatha, the eighteenth Jina who has the fish-symbol according to the Digambaras but the nandyavarata according to the Svetambaras^[13].

The Manasara refers to the Digambara image, but except the nakedness other characteristics are common to both Svetambara and the Digambara images. The chief characteristics of a Jina image are long arms, a beautiful young figure, eyes centered on nose tip in meditation and the srivatsa mark on the chest.

Gandharvas, Kinnaras and the vidyadharas styled as vyantara devata in the Jain canonical literature. They are mostly engraved near in the prabhamandala of these images. Beautiful evidences of their representation flying with carrying garlands or trays full of flowers and other offerings as noticed in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri^[14].

In the Jain canonical literature, the Yaksha with their female counterparts Yakshi or Sasanadevi as subsidiary deities associated with the principal attendant of the Tirthankara. The Navamuni-Gumpha and Barabhuji-Gumpha of Khandagiri hill represent separate niches after these Sasanadevi figures below their Tirthankaras. In cases of Jain Tirthankara images from Kachela, Subei, B. Singpur, etc. of Koraput district they are invariably represented in the centre of the pedestal of the Tirthankara. Independent figures of some prominent Sasanadevis like Chakreswari, Ambika, Rohini, etc. were also carved and worshipped by the devotees. Representation of Yaksha Gomedha and Sasanadevi Ambika sitting on a common pedestal under mango tree is a common feature in Odisha.

The worship of Tirthankara images and their subsidiary deities are become popular with the progress of Jainism and the majority of the images are assigned to the 8^th to 11^th centuries CE, mostly of Somavamsis period^[15]. Jain sculptures are found not only in coastal districts but also at the districts like Koraput, Kalahandi, Rayagada, Boudh, Keonjhar and Mayurbhanj^[16]. The Jain images are found generally made of sandstone, khandolite and chlorite stones. Metal images are also known from Jajpur, Choudwar, Bhanapur, Kakatpur and Achutrajpur.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

U.P. Saha, Jaina-Rupa-Mandana, Vol.I, New Delhi, 1987, p.9.

[2]:

S. Nagar, Iconography of Jaina Deities, Vol.I, Delhi, 1999, pp.26-30.

[3]:

Ibid.

[4]:

Ibid.

[5]:

G.C. Chauley, Monumental Heritage of Orissa, Delhi, 2004, p.47.

[6]:

Ibid.

[7]:

S. Agrawal, ri Kh ravela, Cuttack, 2010, p.16.

[8]:

U.P. Saha, op.cit.

[9]:

N.K. Sahu, Kharavela, Bhubaneswar, 1984, p.315.

[10]:

R.P. Mohapatra, Jaina Monuments of Orissa, Delhi, 1984, pp. 197-198.

[11]:

Ibid.

[12]:

N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol.I, Bhubaneswar, 1964, p.385.

[13]:

S. Nagar, op.cit.

[14]:

N.K. Sahu, Kharavela, op.cit., p.124.

[15]:

K.S. Behera and T.E. Donaldson, Sculpture Masterpieces from Orissa, New Delhi, 1998, p.43.

[16]:

Ibid., pp.43-47.