Part 8 - A Comparative Study of different Indian Philosophies

a) Fundamental Concepts:

All Indian Philosophies except Sankara and Yogacara sect of Buddhism accept the existence of this world (jagat). The concept of God (Isvara) or the supreme consciousness in different forms is acceptable to all except Buddhism, Jainism, Samkhya and Carvakas.

Another common feature of all darsanas is all of them except Carvaka believe in consciousness, power of atman. Atman is immortal. Buddha believed in empirical self, which is a stream of consciousness and transitory in nature. Nyaya and Vaisesika have realistic view. They say atman becomes conscious only when it comes in contact with mind, body and senses. Thus according to them consciousness is accidental property of atman and atman is knower, doer and enjoyer. Individual souls are many (jivatma) whereas universal soul (paramatma) is one. According to Mimamsa darsana, atman is permanent entity. Samkhya believes consciousness as essential property of the self (purusa).

Law of karma is approved by all nine darsanas except Carvaka, which says we always get fruits of those karmas (deeds) for which we are responsible.

All darsanas except Carvaka believe ignorance as the cause of bondage, and that only brings miseries in our life and drags us into the cycle of birth and death. Ignorance is non-discrimination between purusa and prakrti as per Samkhya, not knowing four Aryasatyas as per Buddhism and not knowing the state of atman as per Sankara's Vedanta. The main cause of bondage is klesa or avidya according to Yoga, mithyatva in Jainism. All these darsanas expect us to gain, give us knowledge of and attain moksa or liberation.

All darsanas believe in knowledge as well as practices i.e. jnana and sadhana, and they have prescribed various practices for this, similar to yoga darsanas. One has to perform ethically and morally in the best ways on this world platform. Except Carvaka, all believe in ethical discipline and self control, which doesn”t mean suppression of senses but, directing them to proper direction.

All darsanas except Carvaka believe in re-birth and life after death. Carvaka doesn”t support eternity of atman.

As per Bhagavadgita, the great Indian poetic scripture, atman is that which pervades the entire body is indestructible, imperishable^[1].

As per Buddha, life starts a new chapter of future after the last chapter of the past. Nyaya and Vaisesika confirm re-birth by illustration of cry and laugh of a new born child. Samkhya talks of subtle body entering into a new gross body.

b) Pramanas (Means of valid knowledge):

The most common feature among all darsanas is epistemology in them. Pramanas are valid means of acquiring knowledge or evidences. In our daily life, we consciously or unconsciously use these valid means of knowledge available to us to know various things that come our way. We should understand all these pramanas properly to avoid using wrong means to know a particular type of object. Proper understanding of pramanas facilitates channelising of our energy properly and also culminates in the attainment and fulfillment of the objective.

The most common, prime and important pramana -pratyaksa, is a doubtless knowledge, a direct realization, an immediate cognition and an independent proof of all knowledge acquired through our inner and outer senses. It is an external or ordinary and internal or extraordinary perception. The immediacy of direct cognition is the intrinsic characteristic of perceptual knowledge, and does not merely depend on the organs of perception.

Another pramana is anumana (inference) which means “knowing after” (method by which knowledge derived from another knowledge) and is indirect, mediate knowledge. Looking at one object, we deduce the presence of the other from the knowledge of invariable relationship between both of them. This is logical process of gaining the knowledge. The knowledge gained thus is called inferential knowledge or the logical deduction. The basis of this knowledge is perception but at the core is vyapti or invariable concomitance.

The methodology of Inference consists of three sentences i.e. paksa (minor term), sadhya (major term) and hetu (middle term, conclusion). It involves a combination of induction and deduction moving from particular to particular via generality.

Carvakas believe only in direct perception as evidence (pratyaksa pramana). Normally, we believe in only those things which we can directly see or perceive through our senses. This perception can be external or internal.

Buddhism gives importance to pratyaksa (Direct Perception) and anumana (Inference). When something is inferred from an event is anumana pramana. In addition to these two, Samkhya Philosophy includes upamana (analogy) as pramana. Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta philosophies have two more pramanas, namely arthapatti (presumption) and anupalabdhi (non-cognition) in addition to above four. Thus there are total six means of valid knowledge.

Jainism believes pratyaksa, anumana and sabda or agamas as pramanas, though pratyaksa here is different from “direct perception through senses” as described in other darsanas. What you perceive perfectly without support of the senses, through our inner senses or intuition power is pratyaksa as per Jainism.

c) Dhyana (Meditation)

Dhyana is a deliberate effort to eliminate ego and getting absorbed into the truth as per common principles of all Indian Philosophies. We and only we are author of our being, good or bad, rich or poor, wise or mad. No God or Isvara or Lord can write our fate. Both Buddhist Dhyana and Yoga doctrine of meditation followed by samadhi emphasizes the physical and hygienic conditions necessary for mental training. Buddhists have coined the word Zen for meditation and practices include “moment to moment awareness” and “Vipassana”.

Dhyana of astangayoga is discussed in details in the next chapter. Ideals of Yogic practice in Patanjala Yoga is insight into truth, in Upanisads it is union with Brahman or realization of Brahman, separation of purusa from prakrti in Samkhya and in Buddhism, it is attainment of the bodhisattva condition or realization of emptiness of world. A focused inward journey towards self is prescribed by Jainism. Its meditative techniques directly take the aspirant to the ultimate goal. The details are given in third chapter.

d) Darsanas system of Indian Philosophies:

A brief outline of each of the following nine darsanas of Indian Philosophy is mentioned here. Each outline mainly focuses on philosophical point of view and specially mentions spiritual practices prescribed in their scriptures.

Those darsanas which believe in authority of Vedas are astika darsanas, these are first six of them as given below and others three are called nastika darsana s mentioned next to astika ones:

Astika darsanas:

1. Nyaya,
2. Vaisesika,
3. Samkhya,
4. Yoga,
5. Purva Mimamsa,
6. Uttara Mimamsa.

Nastika darsanas:

7. Jainism,
8. Buddhism,
9. Carvaka/Lokayata.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

A.C.Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhagvad-Gita As It Is, The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, Mumbai, 2005, p.416