6. Sacrifices With Political Significance

There are many instances of vedic sacrifices performed by the kings of northern India in the period under discussion. Almost every king performed vedic sacrifices. Sacrifices like Aśvamedha, Rājasūya, and Vājapeya , etc, were performed mainly by the kings as a declaration of their political powers and Agnihotra, paṇcamahāyajña, Paśuyāgah, etc, were performed for their religious merit and their parents. These political sacrifices (Aśvamedha, Rājasūya, Vājapeya , etc.) were being performed clearly to establish their sovereign position and secure prestige in the society.

However, we are not sure whether they had ever performed these sacrifices as they had claimed in their inscriptions. Such examples are also insight, that they performed so many sacrifices that the sky was covered with the smoke of the sacrifices. Harāhā Inscription of Iśānavarman (c. 554 CE)^[1] (/King Sūryavarman) of Maukhari dynasty records during the praśasti (praise) of the ruling King Sūryavarman/ Iśānavarman that “When the fire was kindled during his sacrificial performances, the volume of smoke black like pitch darkness rising on all sides and increased through the tossing and whirling produced by the wind in the sky, made the crowds of peacocks noisy, as they mistook it for the large cloud (Verse 7).” As inscriptions are one of the living sources to explore historical events, we may justify their proclamations from inscriptional evidences at that time. Although these sacrifices were made to establish political power, these sacrifices were much more glorious than religious sacrifices as discussed earlier.

Vājapeya and Aśvamedha sacrifices were usually performed after a king was officially consecrated through Rājasūya sacrifice. So we will discuss these sacrifices in that order where the context of Rājasūya comes first, then Vājapeya and finally, Aśvamedha.

Rājasūya:

The Rājasūya or royal inauguration or consecration is a combination of various sacrifices throughout the year, invested by the king with divine power. The Rājasūya was performed in a great style, showing the power of a king or emperor to commemorate his reign or to proclaim his power and dominion. Several people including royal members, the queens, important dignitaries, residents, various classes of priests led by royal priests, several vedic scholars, and other important governors, feudal kings, and other noble personalities took part in it. During the main ceremony, the new king is anointed and at that time he is declared the winner of a stage battle. Preparations for the actual sacrifice usually begin several years in advance, after the king has announced his intention to sacrifice. Several offerings, libations, chanting of Sāma-mantras, many prayers to several gods, the drinking a few cups of Soma and getting haircuts as per the rule and other observances, etc. different religious activities made the yajña very complicated. Due to the royal prestige associated with this sacrifice, it gave the priests a great opportunity to receive the king's praise and to receive generous gifts of food, grains, cows, land, a seat in the royal court sometimes, gold and jewels, etc.It was replaced by a simplified abhiṣeka in later times.It was perhaps much less celebrated in the later early and middle ages and that's probably why we don't have many examples.

Cambay Plates (c. 930 CE)^[2] issued by the king Govinda IV of Rāṣṭrakūṭa dynasty records a grant of a village to a vedic Brāhmaṇa Nāgamayya, son of Mahādevayya, belonging to the Māṭhara-gotra and a student of the Vāji-Kāṇva-śākhā to perform various vedic sacrifices including the Rājasūya for the king Govinda IV. It was made for many other the purposes such as maintaining the bali, caru, vaiśvadeva, and atithitarpaṇa; for the performance of the optional, indispensable and occasional rites (kāmya-nitya-naimittika-karmas);for the performance of the śrāddha and sacrificial ceremonies such as Darśapūrṇamāsa, Cāturmāsya, Ashṭakā, and Āgrayaṇa rites and the fortnightly śrāddhas; to provide accessory assistance for the rites concerning saptaso ma and Rājasūya Sacrifice such as the offering garments, ornaments, entertainment, gift, sacrificial fees and among others.This charter bears some evidence that the tradition of this yajña however was very rare but not disappeared totally from the scene.

Vājapeya:

The Vājapeya sacrifice lasted for seventeen days in one year, and it was performed not only to restore and enhance the power of the middle-aged king but to turn him from an ordinary king to an emperor, who had the power to control several kings but himself won’t be controlled by anyone.

It was a formal sacrifice of food and drink, which was to increase the strength and glory of the worshiper. Worshipers were usually kings or the members of the royal family. It can also be performed to get divine help to fight and conquer victorious enemies. On the first day out of seventeen days, Soma-juice was taken out of Somalatā by pressing. The gods and goddesses were worshiped for the next thirteen days with chants and prayers along with offerings of food and oblations. And the final three days the Upasad ceremony was observed where the host of the sacrifice did fasting.

For the Maruts and Prajāpati, the host also sacrificed several animals during the sacrifice. The priests, the organizer of this sacrifice, and his wife wore gold garlands, which were part of the priest's fees. After the sacrifice began on the first day with the suppression of the Soma Juice, the king had to organize a mock chariot race, in which he need to took part along with sixteen other charioteers. Three horses were added to his chariot, and each of the contestants was given four horses. The prime priest organized this racing so that in the end only the king could be declared as the winner. Other rituals were then performed, where priests and organizers had to pay homage to several deities with soma juice and other offerings. Vājapeya was a solemn ceremony performed by kings to demonstrate their prowess and might, to influence their subjects, and to intimidate their enemies.Some early-medieval inscriptions speak of this sacrifice

Mudgapadra grant of Yuvarājā Śryāśraya Śīlāditya (c. 668-69 CE)^[3] issued by the King Vikramāditya I (Śryāśraya Śīlāditya-yuvarāja) of Cālukyas of Bādāmi dynasty records a grant of a village to a vedic brāhmaṇa. In the description part of the inscription, it records about the family history and about the former king Śrī-Pulakeśī-vallabha, ‘whose body had been purified by the ceremonial bath (avabhṛta-snāna) culminating in the sacrifices like Bahusuvarṇaka , Pauṇḍarīka , Vājapeya and Aśvamedha sacrifice.’

After the downfall of the Matharas, the Śailoabhavas rose into prominence and established their political powers mostly in the Odisha region. They were adherent followers of vedic worship and rituals. Mādhavarāja II and his son Madhyamarāja-I are known to have performed Aśvamedha and Vājapeya sacrifices.^[4] They showed more interest in these vedic practices in establishing their imperial status. They also issued lands to the learned brāhmaṇas known as bhaṭṭas to get the support and religious help in consolidating their authority.^[5]

Aśvamedha:

Aśvamedha was one of the most popular and prestigious vedic sacrifices in ancient India, which is mentioned in several scriptures, including the Upaniṣads. Like the Vājapeya and Rājasūya, it was also performed by powerful kings or emperors to expand their territories and celebrate their victories. Though the horse was let out to roam, for a year, the actual sacrifice was completed within just three days.If the horse is killed or carried by enemies, the sacrifice would be annulled.

The sacrifice began with the selection of an able horse. On the appointed day, the priests were entertained with lavish offerings of food. The king, accompanied by his queens, priests, and royal entourage assembled in open ground and camped there for the night near the Gārhapatya fire, listening to the religious discourse of music.

The next day, the horse was consecrated with rituals and set free, along with a hundred other horses, an army of four hundred young soldiers guarding them. Armed with swords, arrows, spears, etc., they followed the horse wherever it went and guarded it from enemies and unforeseen events. If the horse died due to sickness or an accident, it was replaced by another. For a year or six months, the horse was allowed to roam free in whichever direction it went. The king claimed all the land through which it passed as his own and declared his sovereignty over it. If anyone challenged him, he waged a war.

If everything went well, at the end of the expedition, the horse was guided back to the ritual place and anointed by the chief queen. King’s men or the priests decorated it and covered it with 101 gold coins which were later gifted to the priests. They fed the sacrificial horse and tied it to a ritual post along with hundreds (300-400) of other animals, from elephants to even birds and bees. On the chosen day, the king sacrificed the horse to the chants of the priests. It was followed by the sacrifice of the remaining animals. The night the horse was sacrificed, the chief queen slept with the horse as a symbolic gesture of sleeping with a divine being (Puruṣa). The rituals lasted for days, even after the horse was sacrificed, in which Indra, Varūṇa and other gods were invoked and nourished with rich offerings.

There are several instances in Sanskrit epics and Purāṇas where legendary fictional kings (emperor Bhārata who is described as a performer of hundreds of Aśvamedha sacrifices on the banks of the divine rivers Gaṇgā , Yamunā and Sarasvatī in the Mahābhārata) performed Aśvamedha sacrifice.

They are very few in the number who performed the sacrifice from the time frame between the 4^th century to 12^th century CE in northern India. However, some inscriptional evidence records about the sacrifice done by the Kings Śīlavarman, Pravarasena, of Poṇa, Vākāṭaka, Gupta, of followed by the kings of Gupta and Cālukya dynasties, the practice of the sacrifice diminished remarkably.

Poṇa:

The first example of Aśvamedha yajña in our discussion is found in the reign of Śīlavarman of Poṇa dynasty near Kalsi, Dehra Dun district in modern Uttarakhand. “Aśvamedha Brick Inscription of Śīlavarman” (c. 325 CE)^[6] records the horse–sacrifice (Aśvamedha) done by the King Śīlavarman , sixth in line from Poṇa dynasty. It is inscribed on the bricks used during the sacrifice and many bricks used for the alter were stamped with stanza. It says these are the bricks of (used in) the horse–sacrifice (Aśvamedha) of King Yugeśvara Śīlavarman, of Vṛṣagaṇa-gotra, the lord of Yugaśaila and a yugeśvara. Brick in another site records that this is the altar (cṣhitya) of (used in the) fourth horse–sacrifice (Aśvamedha) performed by king Śīlavarman of Vṛṣagaṇa-gotra, the sixth ruler from Poṇa dynasty.

Vākāṭaka:

Originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE, The Vākāṭaka Empire extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of modern Chattisgarh in the east. It is historically proven that pravarasena I (c. 270–c. 330 CE) of Vākāṭaka dynasty during the early fourth century CE performed this prestigious sacrifice. Inscriptions of his descendants state that he performed four Aśvamedha sacrifices in his reign in the central-northern region.^[7]

Gupta:

The Gupta dynasty was the most widespread, studied, and discussed dynasty in northern India that existed from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE to c. 543 CE and from 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent which considered as the Golden Age of India by historians.^[8] So naturally, in our discussion, the highest incidence of Aśvamedha sacrifice has been observed among the kings of this dynasty.

It is quite surprising that the famous ‘Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta’ (c. 355 CE)^[9] is totally silent about the Aśvamedha sacrifice performed by him (understandably as the inscription was composed before the sacrifice), but the Aśvamedha type of coins issued by him as well as the reference to him as the performer of this long discarded (cirotsanna) sacrifice in the records of his successors bear strong testimony to the performance of this sacrifice by him.

The Gold coin inscriptions of Samudragupta (c. 360 CE)^[10] issued by the king himself records about the emperor who has unsurmountable prowess conquers the heaven after conquering the earth and another side of the same inscription records about this sacrifice through his praśasti (praise) ‘one who has attacking power (leading to the performance of) the Aśvamedha sacrifice.’

Candragupta II (Vikramāditya), the son of Samudragupta, also performed Aśvamedha Sacrificeand maintained the glory of this royal family like his father. Mathurā inscription of Candragupta-II (c. 400 CE)^[11] issued by king Chandragupta II records that Mahārājādhirāja Candragupta, the son of Dattadevī and Samudragupta who was the exterminator of all king; who had equal on earth; whose fame was tasted by the waters of the four oceans: who was equal to Kubera (Dhanadā), Varūṇa, Indra and Yama; who was the very axe of Kṛtānta (god of death), who was the giver of several crores of cows and gold rightly earned and who performed Aśvamedha sacrifice that had long decayed.’

One more evidence of performing this sacrifice can be found during the 7^th century CE of later Gupta dynasty. Deogarh Inscription of Ādityasena (c. 670 CE)^[12] records about the Aśvamedha and such sacrifices performed by the king. The description part of this inscription records the praśasti (praise) of the king Ādityasena like, there was the king (rājā), Ādityasena, the ruler of the whole earth bounded by the seas, who was renowned as one who had performed the great sacrifices Aśvamedha and such, and whose power and splendor was like those of the celestials. In Kṛta-yuga, having come from Colapuram, having performed three Aśvamedha sacrifices with three ten (thirty) thousand jewels and three lakhs of golden ṭaṅkakas and having performed the gift ceremony called tulā-sahasra with a crore of horses, he performed this meritorious deed (kīrtti) in association with his chief queen Śrī-Koshadevī. It further records, having got Nṛhari consecrated, as per the regulations (vidhi) with the help of eminent brāhmaṇas just as he himself had established the adherence to the paths of life as laid down in the Vedas with the help of those eminent brāhmaṇas he constructed the establishment temple for the above-stated God for the welfare of the three worlds.

Cālukya:

Cālukya s ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries and expanded accordingly. Bādāmi Cālukyas (ruled by fifteen different rulers during c. 500-753 CE in Southern region), Vengi (Eastern) Cālukyas (ruled by thirty different rulers during c. 624-1061 CE in Eastern region), and Kalyāṇī (Western) Cālukyas (ruled by twelve different rulers during c. 957-1200 CE in the Western region) were the three branches of this powerful royal dynasty. Evidence of the Aśvamedha sacrifice has been recorded in their inscriptions.

Mudgapadra grant of Yuvarājā Śryāśraya Śīlāditya (c. 668-69 CE)^[13] issued by the King Vikramāditya I (Śryāśraya Śīlāditya -y uvarāja) of Cālukyas of Bādāmi dynasty records a grant of a village to a vedic brāhmaṇa. In the description part of the inscription, it records about the family history and about the former King Śrī-Pulakeśī-vallabha, whose body had been purified by the ceremonial bath (avabhṛta-snāna) culminating in the sacrifices like Bahusuvarṇaka , Pauṇḍarīka , Vājapeya and above all the Aśvamedha sacrifice.

Another inscription issued by Yuvarāja Śryāśraya Śīlāditya i.e. Surat Plates of Yuvarāja Śryāśraya Śīlāditya” (c. 693 CE)^[14] issued by the King Yuvarāja Śryāśraya Śīlāditya of Cālukyas of Gujarat dynasty again records a grant of a village to a vedic brāhmaṇa along with the Aśvamedha sacrifice done by the former ruler AtyāśrayaŚrīpula-keśivallabha-mahārājạ who had to embellish that family. His head had been sanctified by the bath at the ceremony (avabhṛtha-snāna) after the sacrifices, Bahusuvarṇaka and Aśvamedha, who was comparable to the ancient great Kings Nṛga, Nahuṣa, Yayāti, Dhundhumāra,and Ambarīsha, who had snatched the battle standard of Śrī -H arṣavardhana, the master of the whole northern region (Sakalottarāpatha).

Similarly in the inscription tittled as “Navasāri Plates of Pulakesirāja” (c. 739 CE)^[15] issued by the King Yuvarāja Śryāśraya Śīlāditya of Cālukya of Gujarat Dynasty records a grant of a village to a vedic brāhmaṇa. The beginning portion up to the reference to former king Kīrtivarman-1 of the main Chāulkya Dynasty, as one whose body had been purified by the avabṛta bath at the conclusion of Aśvamedha sacrifice closely follows the corresponding text in other Cālukya s charter and continues that Satyāśraya-Pṛthivivallabha-Maharājādhirājā-Parameśvara-Śrī-Kīrttivarma-rāja, was one whose pair of lotus like feet was glowing by the bright rays of the numerous gems studded on the crowns of many kings. After a strong pedigree of the dynasty the formal grant portion records a grant of a village Padraka to a learned vedic brāhmaṇa for the increase of fame and merit of his parents and self.

Śailoabhavs:

After the downfall of the Māthāras, the Śailoabhavas rose into prominence and established their political powers mostly in Odisha region. They were aardent followers of vedic worship and rituals. Mādhavarāja II and his son Madhyamarāja-I are known to have performed Aśvamedha and Vājapeya sacrifices.^[16] They showed much interest in these vedic practices to establish their imperial status.

Numerous legendary performances of Aśvamedha sacrifice is depicted in Sanskrit epics and Purāṇas. As stated in the Mahābhārata, four hundred on the banks of the river Gaṇgā, three hundred on the banks of the river Sarasvatī and a hundred Aśvamedha sacrifice on the banks of the river Yamunā was performed by Emperor Bharata. Furthermore, it is described there that a thousand Aśvamedha and a hundred Rājasuya were performed in many different places by Bharata alone.^[17] But, it is impossible for any king to perform so many Aśvamedha sacrifices in a lifetime. Whatever the truth, it must be understood that this sacrifice had a great impact and importance for a king and it was necessary to perform this sacrifice to become the greatest imperial king. There are inscriptional and literary evidences that the kings of ancient dynasties such as, Śuṇga (King Puṣyamitra Śuṇga in c. 185-149 BCE), Gajāyana (king Sarvataṭa during 1st century BCE), Sātavāhana (king Sātakarni I during 1st or 2nd century CE), Īkṣvāku (Vasiṣthiputra Chamtamula in 3rd century CE) were used to perform Aśvamedha sacrifice. Historically the practice of this sacrifice diminished remarkably in the medieval period and was declining gradually. Many centuries after the eleventh century, we find the latest example of this towards the end of the eighteenth century.^[18]

The following chronological chart indicates the kings from different Indian dynasties who performed Aśvamedha sacrifice during early and early medieval periods (4th to 12th century CE) as evidenced by inscriptional and literary sources.

Indian Kings who Performed Aśvamedha Sacrifice

[(4th to 12th century CE)]

King	Dynasty	Territory of Rule	Date
Pravarasena I	Vākāṭaka	North-Central India	c. 270–c. 330 CE[19]
Śīlavarman	Poṇa	Northern India	c. 325 CE[20]
Samudragupta	Gupta	Northern India	c. 335/350-375 CE187
Candragupta-II	Gupta	Northern India	c. 400 CE[21]
Kumaragupta I	Gupta	Northern India	c. 414–455 CE[22]
Mādhava Varman	Viṣṇukunḍina	Deccan, eastern, and parts of Southern India	c. 440-460 CE[23]
Dhārāsena	Traikutaka	Northern Konkan and Northern Mahārāṣṭra	5th century CE[24]
Kṛṣṇavarman	Kadamba	Southern India	5th century CE[25]
Nārāyaṇavarman	Varman	Eastern region of the Indian subcontinent	c. 494–518 CE[26]
Bhūtivarman	Varman	Far eastern region of the Indian subcontinent	c. 518–542 CE[27]
Pulakeśin I	Cālukyas of Vātāpi	Central-South India	c. 543–566 CE[28]
Sṭhitavarman	Varman	Eastern region of the Indian subcontinent	c. 565–585 CE[29]
Pulakeśin II	Cālukyas of Vātāpi	Central-South India	c. 610–642 CE[30]
Mādhavarāja II (Mādhavavarman)	Śailodbhava	Eastern India (Orissā)	c. 620-670 CE[31]
Siṃhavarman (possibly Narasiṃhavarman I)	Pallava	Southern India	c. 630-668 CE[32]
Ādityasena	Later Gupta	Northern India	c. 655-680 CE[33]
Madhyamarāja I (Ayashobhita II)	Śailodbhava	Eastern India (Orissā)	c. 670-700 CE[34]
Dharmarāja (Manabhita)	Śailodbhava	Eastern India (Orissā)	c. 726-727 CE[35]
Rājādhirāja Cola	Cola	Southern India	c. 1044–1052 CE[36]

As we have seen, the study of land grant charters in the early and medieval periods in northern India is very important because it sheds light on many problems and revives many unknown histories connected with land management such as the donors of land, the procedure of donating land, varieties of assignments, the purpose of donations, tenure, ownership of land, security and protection to the donation and above all we may gather some knowledge about the major religious practices of that time. Besides, we may understand the position and status of vedic brāhmaṇas in the society and if noticed a little better, we will know as we saw, the yajurvedīya brāhmaṇas were the most desired in the society. Furthermore, the political views of the kings are identified through political and religious ceremonies done and patronized by them.

Our main purpose is to show the existence of vedic culture and religion during the period under discussion and how the culture maintained itself in a situation where other religions strongly existed in society. Although one part of this chapter deals with the religious aspect, sacrificial vedic culture is more enlightened in this chapter than other religions prevalent in the society. Hence, there is no reason to understand that other sects and religions did not exist at that time, or that their very existence was in crisis. Rather, how did the vedic religion merge with other religions in the society and the coexistence of all religions, the religious practices of the kings, and above all, the ancient tradition of vedic religion and glory among all the prevalent religions will be discussed in detail in a separate chapter later.

These land grant charters also mentioning the migration of the vedic brāhmaṇas relatively huge in number. These immigrants vedic brāhmaṇas emerged as an important group in society along with non-immigrants. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter, how they spread their influence in all parts of northern India through migration, and how the vedic environment was automatically created in those places.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

USVAE, vol. III, pp. 422-429.

[2]:

Ibid., vol. VII, pp.156-166.

[3]:

Ibid., vol. IV, part II, pp. 363-369.

[4]:

EI, vol. XI, pp. 281-287.

[5]:

Ibid., vol. XIII, pp.123-131.

[6]:

USVAE, vol. III, pp.7-8.

[7]:

D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 176.

[8]:

N. Jayapalan, History of India, vol. I, p.130.

[9]:

USVAE, vol. III, pp. 38-43.

[10]:

Ibid., pp. 55-57.

[11]:

Ibid., pp. 88-89.

[12]:

Ibid., vol. IV, part II, pp. 260-265.

[13]:

Ibid., pp. 363-369.

[14]:

Ibid., pp. 546-553.

[15]:

Ibid., vol. V, pp. 200-209.

[16]:

EI, vol. XI, pp. 281-287.

[17]:

K.M. Ganguly, The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, pp. 130–131.

[18]:

King Jai Singh II of Kachwa has of Jaipur dynasty was a performer of this vedic sacrifice (c. 1734 and 1741 CE). A court poet of Jai Singh II’s son Īśvara Singh and the author of Īśvaravilāsa Kāvya, Kṛṣṇa-bhaṭṭa described that he personally was a participant in Jai Singh's Aśvamedha sacrifice. ["Some contemporary Evidence regarding the aśvamedha Sacrifice performed by Sevai Jaya sing of Amber (1699-1744 A. D.)", P.K. Gode, Studies in Indian Literary History, pp. 288–291].

[19]:

Inscriptions of his descendants state that he performed four Aśvamedha sacrifices [D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 176].

[20]:

USVAE, vol. III, pp.7-8.

[21]:

Mathurā inscription of Candragupta-II, USVAE, vol. III, pp.88-89.

[22]:

Ashvini Agrawal, Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, p. 139.

[23]:

Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya, Class and Religion in Ancient India, p. 203.

[24]:

Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, p. 508.

[25]:

Ibid., p. 510.

[26]:

Legend of Bhāskaravarman's seals (D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 179).

[27]:

Barganga inscription (D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 179).

[28]:

David M. Knipe, Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition, p. 10.

[29]:

Karl J. Schmidt, An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History, p. 77.

[30]:

Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya, op. cit., p. 203.

[31]:

Their inscriptions bear evidences of Aśvamedha sacrifices [Snigdha Tripathy, Inscriptions of Orissa. I -Circa 5th-8th centuries A.D, p. 67].

[32]:

The Sivanvayal pillar inscription states that he performed ten Aśvamedha sacrifices (D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 176).

[33]:

Vaidyanatha temple (Deoghar) inscription (D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 179).

[34]:

His Inscriptions bear evidences of Aśvamedha sacrifice performed by him [Snigdha Tripathy, Inscriptions of Orissa. I -Circa 5th-8th centuries A.D, pp. 74-75]. One interpretation of the inscriptions suggests that he merely participated in the Aśvamedha performed by his father Mādhavarāja II (D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 179).

[35]:

Inscriptions;one interpretation of the inscriptions suggests that he merely participated in the Aśvamedha performed by his grandfather Mādhavarāja II (D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 179).

[36]:

R.S. Tripathi, History of Ancient India, p. 466.