Arms and Armours

Weapon is the warlike equipment of the Kṣatriya. The term āyudha is used in the sense of weapon in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā^[1] and in the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā.^[2]

In the commentary of a Ṛgvedic verse, Sāyaṇācārya explains the term āyudha as—

āyudhaṃ dhanuḥ śarādikaṃ…../^[3]

In the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, the term heti is used to denote āyudha.^[4] The sixth maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā^[5] mentions the names of numerous weapons used in war. Among the different types of weapons, bows and arrows were considered as the principal weapons in the Vedic age. There are frequent references to the bow (dhanus)^[6] and arrow (iṣu)^[7] in various Vedic texts. The bow , which was called dhanus or dhanvan,^[8] was made of a stout staff bent into carved shape,^[9] and of a bow-string (jyā), made of a strip of cow-hide.^[10] Jyā is the regular word for bow-string in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā^[11] and later Vedic texts.^[12]

Sāyaṇācārya, in his commentary on the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, explains the word jyā as follows—

jyāṃ dhanuṣaḥ koṭau maurvīṃ /^[13]

The bow-string consisted of a throng of ox-hide.^[14] The manufacture of bows and arrows were a regular profession of the people, as evidenced by the mentions of the terms iṣukāra,^[15] iṣukṛt,^[16] dhanuṣkāra,^[17] dhanuṣkṛt,^[18] jyākāra,^[19] etc. The head of the arrow was very sharp,^[20] which was made of deer’s horn.^[21]

Yāska also says—

suparṇaṃ vasta iti vājānabhipretya mṛgamayo’syā danto mṛgayatervā gbhiḥ saṃnaddhā patati prasūteti vyākhyātām/^[22]

The arrows were drawn upto the ear before loosening^[23] and therefore, it is described as ‘having the ear for its place of birth’ (karṇayoni).^[24]

Sāyaṇācārya states in this context as—

karṇayonayaḥ śrotreindriyeṇa grāhyā mantrabhūtāḥ ākarṇakṛṣṭā vā bāṇāḥ/^[25]

The term apāṣṭha is used to denote the barb of an arrow in the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā.^[26] In another Atharvavedic verse, the word śatāpāṣṭham is used in the sense of hunded barbs.^[27] The length of an arrow was about five spans or three feet.^[28] Two types of arrows are mentioned in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, viz. one of which was poisoned (ālāktā) with a head of horn (ruruśīrṣṇī) and the other was iron-headed (ayomukham).^[29] The arrow-holder was called iṣudhi,^[30] which was carried by every bowman slung on his back.

Sāyaṇācārya explains the term iṣudhi as–

bahava iṣavo hīṣudhau nidhīyante/ iṣūṇāṃ nidhānatvādiṣudhiḥ/^[31]

Yāska also explains the word iṣudhi as—

iṣudhiriṣūṇāṃ nidhānam/^[32]

It was also known as niṣaṅga.^[33]

Uvaṭa also in his commentary states—

niṣaṅgaṃ khaḍgaṃ tadasyāstīti niṣaṅgī iṣudhimān/ iṣavaḥ dhīyante asminniti iṣudhiḥ/^[34]

The Śatapathabrāhmaṇa mentions a quiver, made of leather, which was given as a fee to the priest in the Ratnahavīṃṣi ceremony.^[35] The Ṛgveda-saṃhitā mentions another weapon, named, pavīra or spear,^[36] or having a spear, i.e. pavīravān. The term pavi means a metal tire with sharp edge.^[37]

Sāyaṇācārya explains the term pavi as—

pavayaḥ vajrasamānā dṛḍhāścakraviśeṣāḥ/^[38]

According to Yāska, pavi means a javelin, because it tears the body open and pavīra means a pointed weapon, i.e. furnished with javelins.^[39] Thus, this weapon might be like a javelin to be hurled against an enemy. In another Ṛgvedic verse, the term pavīrava is mentioned, which according to Sāyaṇācārya, means thunderbolt.^[40] Again, the word kārpāṇa was used to mean a sword, with which Indra fought with Vṛtra.^[41] The lance was called sṛka in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā.^[42] Ṛṣṭi also denotes a weapon of the Maruts.^[43] According to A.A. Macdonell and A.B. Keith, the word ṛṣṭi simply means lighting,^[44] but it signifies a spear in later Sanskrit literature and its metaphorical use presupposes the popularity of the weapons among the Ṛgvedic Āryans. In a Ṛgvedic verse, the term bhrājadṛṣṭayaḥ is used to mean shinning weapons, which is interpreted by Sāyaṇācārya as dīpyamānāyudhāḥ.^[45] In the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, the word śakti have been used in the sense of a spear.^[46] The word vāśī was used in the sense of a hachet, which was held by god Tvaṣṭṛ, the divine carpenter.^[47]

Sāyaṇācārya interprets the term vāśī as–

vāśīm/ vāśṛ śabde/ śabdayatyākrandayati śatrūnanayeti vāśī takṣaṇasādhanaṃ kuṭhāraḥ/^[48]

The Ṛgvedic Āryans might have used this as a weapon in the war. It was mentioned as a weapon of the Maruts.^[49] The paraśu was an axe,^[50] used in battles by the Ṛgvedic Āryans. In the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, the word svadhiti is also used to mean an axe, with which Indra was supposed to cut the clouds open.^[51] But according to Sāyaṇācārya, this word means the thunderbolt.^[52] Aśmā is mentioned as particular weapon of the Maruts in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā.^[53] Sāyaṇācārya explains the term aśmā as—aśmā vyāpakaḥ āyudhaviśeṣaḥ,^[54] while Griffith translates this word as stone (the thunderbolt).^[55] The cakra or discus was another weapon used in war. In the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, cakra is mentioned as a weapon of Indra, with which he scattered the Asuras.^[56] Sāyaṇācārya interprets this as wheel thunderbolt.^[57] The cakra is also mentioned as a weapon of Pūṣan, which is not destroyed.^[58] The discus was sharpedged and rapidly turned on the point of the digit finger of the right hand before being hurled against an enemy. The goad, aṅkuśa is mentioned as a divine

weapon.^[59] Sāyaṇācārya explains this weapon as—

sṛṇirākarṣaṇasādhanamāyudhaṃ/^[60] Again, arbudi and nyarbudi seem to be some kind of serpentine weapons like nāgapāśa, which cover the body of the warrior so that his enemy could not see him.^[61] Triṣaṃdhi, a weapon, having three joints has been mentioned in the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, by means of which Indra defeated Vṛtra.^[62]

But Sāyaṇācarya says that vajra and triṣaṃdhi are the same weapons—

trisaṃdhinā saṃdhitrayopetena vajreṇa/^[63]

Vajra or thunderbolt was another type of weapon used in war. Indra’s vajra was made of stone,^[64] bone,^[65] iron,^[66] etc. Indra killed Vṛtra with his steeds that possessed of the thunderbolt of iron.^[67]

In this context, the term vajramāyasam is used to mean iron thunderbolt—

āyasam ayomayaṃ vajram../^[68]

Indra also slew the Vṛtras or demons with the thunderbolt, which was made of Dadhyañc’s bone.^[69] Vajra was fashioned for Indra by Tvaṣṭṛ, the artificer of the gods,^[70] but in other places it appears to have been made and given by Kāvya Uśanas.^[71] Again, the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā mentions that vajra was made by Bṛhaspati, the son of Aṅgirasa.^[72] Indra received this weapon as a gift from the gods, which is mentioned in the Aitareyebrāhmaṇa.^[73] In the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, vajra is sometimes represented as four-angled^[74] or sometimes hundred-edges^[75] or sometimes hundred-jointed^[76] or sometimes as having thousand points.^[77] The Atharvaveda-saṃhitā mentions the name of weapons like kṛntatī, i.e.one which cuts, an axe or a sword, and pināka, i.e. the trident, which are used to make the enemy troops dispersed so that they are unable to re-unite.^[78] The Ṛgveda-saṃhitā gives references to a weapon named rambhiṇī, which was found on the shoulders of the Maruts, which denotes doubtedly a lance, and in their hands they hold a guard and sword.^[79]

Sāyaṇācārya, in this context, says that term rambhiṇī either means a lance or the beauty of the arms—

rambhiṇīva yuvatamāṃsālambinī yoṣidiva ā rārabhe ārebhe āśliṣyati/ avalambane sāmarthyāt śaktyākhyāyudhaviśeṣo bhujalakṣmīrvā/^[80]

The asi was another type of weapon mentioned in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā.^[81] Besides these, pāśa, khaḍga, śatadhanus, āyudha, etc., were also used in war during the Vedic age, which were made of wood, stones, copper, bronze and the like. In the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, it is mentioned that god Rudra possesses thousands of weapons in his hand.^[82]

In the Vedic period, the warriors put different types of dresses for protecting their body in war. Generally, the noble warriors put on coats of mail; called drāpi.^[83]

Sāyaṇācārya explains term drāpi as—

drāpayati iṣūn kutsitāṃ gatiṃ prāpayatīti drāpiḥ kavacam/^[84]

Varuṇa is described as wearing a golden mail.^[85] In the Vedic literature, the words varman and kavaca occurred in the sense of the body armour.^[86] Griffith states that the varman or coat of mail protected the shoulders, back, chest and lower parts of the body. If not made of metal, it was strengthened and adorned with metal of some kind.^[87] The Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā also gives references to varman, which was made of iron.^[88] Usually, the varman and kavaca were made of iron or steel covered with lacquered ornamentation in gold and colours.

Uvaṭa explains the term kavaca as—

kavacaṃ paṭṭasyūtaṃ karpāsagarbham/^[89]

The Ṛgvedic passage varmeva syūtaṃ pari pāsi^[90] refers to the sewing of the armour.

Sāyaṇācārya interprets this passage as—

syūtaṃ niśchidratvena sūcībhiḥ samyak niṣpāditaṃ varmeva yathā kavacaṃ yuddhe pālayati../

According to A.A.Macdonell and A.B. Keith, it may have been either of metal or of leather, covered with metal.^[91] The term carman is also used to mean the leather shield in later literatutre.^[92] It was made of strong hide like that of the rhinoceros and it was used as defensive tools or impliments for the protection of the person of the warrior. They also covered their arms with a piece of leather called tala as a protection against the bruise of the bow.^[93] The khādi is also mentioned as an armour, which Sāyaṇācārya explains as hastatrāṇaka [hastatrāṇa] [hastatrāṇakaḥ], used by the Maruts to protect their shoulders or hands.^[94] They used the white khādi.^[95] The noble warriors put on helmet called śipra or śiprā, to cover and protect their heads in war.^[96]

The term śiprā is interpreted by Sāyaṇācārya as—

śīrṣasu śiraḥsu hiraṇyayīḥ hiraṇyamayyaḥ śiprāḥ uṣṇīṣamayyaḥ vitatāḥ,^[97]

Which means wrought of gold that are laid upon the head.^[98] The term hiriśipra^[99] also is used, which means raging with jaws of gold.^[100] Sāyaṇācārya interprets the term as—

hiriśipraḥ haraṇaśilahanurdīptoṣṇīṣo vā/^[101]

The term ayaḥśipra^[102] also is mentioned in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, which means jaws of iron.^[103]

Sāyaṇācārya in the present context interprets the term as—

ayaḥśiprāḥ/ śipre hanū nāsike vā/ ayovatsārabhūtaśipraḥ…/^[104]

The warrior used an armguard or bracer to protect his arm from the blow of the string when the arrow was loosed. The term hastaghna is used in the sense of bracer.^[105] Griffith states that the brace or guard worn on the archer’s left arm, was fastened on with leather straps.^[106]

Sāyaṇācārya explains the term as—

hastaghnaḥ/ haste hastasamīpe vartini prakoṣṭhe sthitaḥ san jyayā hanyate iti hastaghnaḥ/^[107]

According to Yāska, hastaghna is so called because it is held firmly on the hand.^[108] Hastatra also is used to mean the bracer.^[109] Therefore, it can be said that the Vedic Āryans used the arms for both offence and defence, and armours were used as defensive or protective tools. So, the arms and armours were essential devices for the warfare.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Ibid., 1.39.2, 1.61.13, 1.92.1, 2.30.9

[2]:

āhutāsyabhihuta ṛṣīṇāmasyāyudham/ pūrvā vratasya prāśnatī vīraghnī bhava mekhale// Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 6.133.2

[3]:

Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.8

[4]:

hetiḥ āyudham// Uvaṭa, Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā , 16.50,52

[5]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.1-19

[6]:

Ibid., 8.72.4, 8.77.11, 9.99.1, 10. 18.9 Also vide, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 4.4.6, 6.6.5, 6.18.8, 7.50.9, Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā , 16.10, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 1.5.4.6, 5.3.1.2

[7]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 2.24.8, 6.75.15

[8]:

Ibid., 2.24.8, 2.33.10, 6.59.7, 6.75.2, 9.69.1

[9]:

yasta āsyat pañcāṅgurirvakrāñcidadhi dhanvanaḥ /Atharvaveda-saṃhitā ,4.6.4

[10]:

avoritthā vāṃ chardiṣo abhiṣṭau yuvormitrāvaruṇāvaskṛdhoyu / anu yadgāvaḥ sphurānṛjipyaṃ dhṛṣṇuṃ yadraṇe vṛṣaṇaṃ yunajan // Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.67.11 Also vide, Ibid., 1.2.3

[11]:

Ibid., 4.27.3, 6.75.3, 10.51.6

[12]:

Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 1.1.3, 1.2.2, 5.13.6, 6.42.1 Also vide, Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā , 16.9, 29.51

[13]:

Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 4.27.3

[14]:

vakṣyantīvedā ganīganti karṇaṃ priyaṃ sakhāyaṃ pariṣasvajānā / yoṣeva śiṅkte vitatādhi dhanvañjyā iyaṃ samane pārayantī //Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.3

[15]:

iṣukāraṃ bāṇakartāram// Mahīdhara, Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā , 30.7

[16]:

iṣūn ye kurvanti te iṣukṛtaḥ//Uvaṭa, Ibid., 16.46

[17]:

dhanuṣkāraṃ cāpakāriṇam// Mahīdhara, Ibid., 30.7

[18]:

Ibid., 16.46

[19]:

Ibid., 30.7

[20]:

adha smā no vṛdhe bhavendra nāyamavā yudhi / yadantarikṣe patayanti parṇino didyavastigmamūrdhānaḥ //Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.46.11

[21]:

suparṇaṃ vaste mṛgo asyā danto gobhiḥ saṃnaddhā patati prasūtā /Ibid., 6.75.11

[22]:

Nirukta , 9.19

[23]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.3

[24]:

tasya sādhvīriṣavo yābhirasyati nṛcakṣaso dṛśaye karṇayonayaḥ / Ibid., 2.24.8

[25]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[26]:

apāṣṭhācchṛṅgāt kulmalānniravocamahaṃ viṣam// Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 4.6.5

[27]:

śatāpāṣṭhāṃ ni girati tāṃ na śaknoti niḥkhidan/ Ibid., 5.18.7

[28]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 6.5.2.10 Also vide, Macdonell, A. A. & Keith, A.B., op. cit., Vol.1, p. 82

[29]:

ālāktā yā ruruśīrșṇyatho yasyā ayo mukham / idaṃ parjanyaretasa iṣvai devyai bṛhannamaḥ // Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.15

[30]:

Ibid., 1.33.3, 6.75.5, 10.95.3 Also vide, A.V., 2.33.2, 4.10.6

[31]:

Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.5

[32]:

Nirukta , 9.13

[33]:

niṣaṅgiṇaḥ/ niṣaṅgaśabdena iṣudhirabhidhīyate// Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 3.30.15 Also vide, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 5.57.2, 10.103.3

[34]:

Uvaṭa, Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā , 16.36

[35]:

tasya dakṣiṇā’pyukṣṇaveṣṭitaṃ dhanuścarmamayā bāṇavanto lohita’uṣṇīṣa’etadu hi tasya bhavati/ Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 5.3.1.11

[36]:

yo janān mahiṣā ivātitasthau pavīravān/ utāpavīravān yudhā// Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 10.60.3

[37]:

Ibid., 1.34.2, 1.88.2, 6.8.5, 10.180.2

[38]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid., 1.34.2

[39]:

paviḥ śalyo bhavati/yadvipunāti kāyam/ pavīramāyudham/ Nirukta , 12.30

[40]:

pavīravasya kuliśasya kuliśaśabdasya vā mahnā mahimnā/ tvadvajraprahāreṇa hatā/ Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.174.4

[41]:

tvaṃ tān vṛtrahatye codayo nṛn kārpāṇe śūra vajrivaḥ / guhā yadī kavīnāṃ viśāṃ nakṣatraśavasām // Ṛgveda-saṃhitā ,10.22.10

[42]:

aśvyo vāro abhavastadindra sṛke yattvā pratyahandeva ekaḥ/Ibid., 1.32.12 Also vide, Ibid., 10.180.2

[43]:

aṃseṣveṣāṃ ni mimṛkṣurṛṣṭayaḥ sākaṃ jajñire svadhayā divo naraḥ /Ibid., 1.64.4 Also vide, Ibid.,1.37.2, 1.64.8, 5.52.6, 5.54.11, 5.57.2

[44]:

Vide, Macdonell, A. A. & Keith, A.B., op.cit., Vol.1, p.118

[45]:

Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.64.11

[46]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.9

[47]:

vāśīmeko bibharti hasta āyasīmantardeveṣu nidhruviḥ// Ibid., 8.29.3

[48]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[49]:

ye pṛṣatībhirṛṣṭibhiḥ sākaṃ vāśībhirañjibhiḥ / ajāyanta svabhānavaḥ //Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.37.2 Also vide, Ibid., 1.88.3, 5.53.4

[50]:

Ibid., 1.127.3, 7.104.21, 10.28.8,^, 10.53.9

[51]:

rebhadatra januṣā pūrvo aṅgirā grāvāṇa ūrdhvā abhi cakṣuradhvaram / yebhirvihāyā abhavadvicakṣaṇaḥ pāthaḥ sumekaṃ svadhitirvananvati //Ibid.,10.92.15

[52]:

svadhitiḥ vajraḥ…./ Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[53]:

āre sā vaḥ sudānavo maruta ṛñjatī śaruḥ/ āre aśmā yamasyatha// Ṛgveda-saṃhitā ,1.172.2

[54]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[55]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 118

[56]:

tadvannindra tān asurān cakreṇa cakrasamānavīryeṇa cakrarūpeṇa vajreṇa vā apa vapa apagatān kuru/ Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 8.96.9

[57]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[58]:

pūṣṇaḥ poṣakasya devasya cakram āyudham na riṣyati na vinaśyati/ Sāyaṇa, Ibid., 6.54.3

[59]:

dīrghaste astvaṅkuśo yenā vasu prayacchasi/ yajamānāya sunvate// Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 8.17.10

[60]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[61]:

Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 11.11.4, 5

[62]:

arbudiśca triṣaṃdhiścāmitrān no vi vidhyatām/ yathaiṣāmindra vṛtrahan hanāma śacīpatemitrāṇāṃ sahasraśaḥ//Ibid., 11.11.23 Also vide, Ibid., 11.12.27

[63]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[64]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 2.14.6,7.104.5

[65]:

indro dadhīco asthabhirvṛtrāṇyapratiṣkutaḥ/ jaghāna navatīrnava// Ibid., 1.84.13

[66]:

Ibid., 1.52.8, 1.80.12, 8.85.3, 10.48.3, 10. 96. 3

[67]:

jaghanvā u haribhiḥ saṃbhṛtakratavindra vṛtraṃ manuṣe gātuyannapaḥ / ayacchathā bāhvorvajramāyasamadhārayo divyā sūryaṃ dṛśe// Ibid., 1.52.8

[68]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[69]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.84.13

[70]:

ahannahiṃ parvate śiśriyāṇaṃ tvaṣṭāsmai vajraṃ svaryaṃ tatakṣa/ Ibid., 1.32.2 Also vide, Ibid., 1.61.6, 1.85.9, 5.31.4, 6.17.10, 10.48.3

[71]:

yaṃ te kāvya uśanā mandinaṃ dādvṛtrahaṇaṃ pāryaṃ tatakṣa vajram//Ibid., 1.121.12 Also vide, Ibid., 5.34.2

[72]:

āṅgirasaḥ aṅgirasaḥ putro bṛhaspatiḥ asurakṣayaṇam asurāṇāṃ kṣayakaraṃ vadham hananasādhanaṃ vajram āyudham asiñcata secanena nirmitavān/ Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 11.12.12 Also vide, Ibid., 11.12.13

[73]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa , 4.1.1

[74]:

caturaśriṃ catasṛbhiḥ aśribhiḥ dhārābhirupetaṃ vajraṃ// Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 4.22.2

[75]:

śatāśriṃ śataparvāṇam // Sāyaṇa, Ibid., 6.17.10

[76]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.80.6, 8.6.6

[77]:

Ibid., 1.85.9, 5.34.2,6.17.10

[78]:

viṣūcyetu kṛntatī pinākamiva bibhratī/ viṣvak punarbhuvā mano’samṛddhā aghāyavaḥ//Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 1.27.2

[79]:

aiṣāmaṃseṣu rambhiṇīva rārabhe hasteṣu khādiśca kṛtiśca saṃ dadhe// Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.168.3

[80]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[81]:

akrīḷan krīḷan harirattave’danvi parvaśaścakarta gāmivāsiḥ/ Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 10.79.6 Also vide, Ibid., 10.86.18

[82]:

sahasrāṇi sahasraśo bāhvostava hetayaḥ/Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā ,16.53

[83]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.25.13, 1.116.10, 4.53.2, 9.86.14, 9.100.9

[84]:

Sāyaṇa, Ibid., 1.25.13

[85]:

bibhraddrāpi hiraṇyayaṃ varuṇo vasta nirṇijaṃ / pari spaśo ni ṣedire //Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.25.13

[86]:

varmeva yathā kavacaṃ yuddhe pālayati…/ Sāyaṇa, Ibid., 1.31.15 Also vide, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.140.10, 6.75.1,8,18, 6.8.18, 8.47.8, 10.107.7 Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 8.5.7, 9.5.26, 17.1.27

[87]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 332

[88]:

varma lauhaṃ//Uvaṭa, Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā , 16.35 Also vide, lohamayaṃ śarīrarakṣakaṃ varma..// Mahīdhara, Ibid.

[89]:

Uvaṭa, Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā , 16.35

[90]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.31.15

[91]:

Vide, Macdonell, A.A. & Keith, A.B., op.cit.,Vol.II, p.272

[92]:

Arthaśāstra , 2.18.17

[93]:

jyāghātaparitrāṇaṃ talamucyate/ Nārāyaṇa, Āśvālayana-gṛhya-sūtra , 3.12.11

[94]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.168.3 Also Vide, Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[95]:

pra dhanvānyairata śubhrakhādayo yadejatha svabhānavaḥ/ Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 8.20.4

[96]:

Ibid., 1.101.10, 2.34.3, 5.54.11, 10.96.4 Also Vide, Macdonell, A.A. & Keith, A.B., op.cit.,Vol.II, p. 417

[97]:

Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 5.54.11

[98]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p.267

[99]:

sa hotā viśvaṃ pari bhūtvadhvaraṃ tamu havyairmanuṣa ṛñjate girā / hiriśipro vṛdhasānāsu jarbhuraddayaurna stṛbhiścitayadrodasī anu // Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 2.2.5

[100]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p.131

[101]:

Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 2.2.5

[102]:

pīvoaśvāḥ śucadrathā hi bhūtāyaḥśiprā vājinaḥ suniṣkāḥ/ indrasya sūno śavaso napāto’nu vaścetyagriyaṃ madāya// Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 4.37.4

[103]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 226 Also vide, Wilson, H.H., op. cit., Vol.III, p. 225

[104]:

Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 4.37.4

[105]:

ahiriva bhogaiḥ paryeti bāhuṃ jyāyā hetiṃ paribādhamānaḥ / hastaghno viśvā vayunāni vidvānpumānpumāṃsaṃ pari pātu viśvataḥ //Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.14

[106]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p.332

[107]:

Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.14

[108]:

hastaghno haste hanyate / Nirukta , 9.14

[109]:

Lāṭyāyana-śrauta-sūtra , 3.10.7