Sapta-prakṛti

There is a discussion about Prakṛti in the ninety sixth prakaraṇa of the 1^st chapter of the Arthaśāstra prakṛtisampadaḥ: (The elements of sovereignty) by name.

There are seven types of Prakṛti i.e-

1. the king (svāmi),
2. the minister (amātya),
3. the country (rāṣṭra),
4. the fortified city (durga),
5. the treasury (kośa),
6. the army (daṇḍa) and
7. the ally (mitra).

These are the constituent elements of the state.

“svāmyamātyajanapadadurgakośadaṇḍamitrāṇi prakṛtayaḥ” || (6.1.1)^[1]

‘The king, the minister, the country, the fortified city, the treasury, the army and the ally are the constituent elements (of the state)’^[2]

In this context kāmandaka says—

“svāmyamātyañca rāṣṭraṃ ca durgaṃ kośo valaṃ suhṛt |
parasparopakārīdaṃ saptāṅgaṃ rājyamucyate ||” (4.1)^[3]

The king (Lord), ministers, territory (the state) fortifications (fortified areas), treasury, army (in all complements). Caturaṅga and allies (suṛt) constitute the seven components or limbs of the state (saptaṅgarājya)

Among these kings (svāmi) is the leader of five constituent elements. Minister (amātya), country, (janapada) fort (durga), treasury (kośa) army (daṇḍa). King (svāmī) is two types-king (rājā) and prince (yuvarāja.)

King (svāmī)

The approachable excellences of the king are sixteen. They are:

“mahākulīno daiva vuddhisatvasampanto vṛddhadarśo dhārmikaḥ satyavāgvisaṃvādakaḥ kṛtajñaḥ sthulalakṣo mahotsāho'dīrghasūtraḥ śakyasāmānto dṛḍhavuddhirakṣudrapariṣatko vinayakāma ityabhigāmikā guṇāḥ |” (6.1.3) 140

“Born in a high family, endowed with good fortune, intelligence and spirit, given to seeing elders, pious, truthful in speech, not breaking his promise, grateful iberal, of great energy, dilatory, with weak neighbouring, princes, resolute, not having a mean council (of ministers), desirous of training–these are the qualities of one easily approachable.”^[4]

In this context Kāmandaka says—

“kulaṃ sattvaṃ vayaḥ śīlaṃ dākṣiṇyaṃ kṣiprakāritā |
avisaṃvāditā satyaṃ vṛddhasevā kṛtajñatā |
devasampannatā vuddhirakṣudraparivāratā |
śakyasāmantatā caiva tathā ca dṛḍhabhaktitā ||
dīrghadarśitvamutsāhaḥ śucitā sthūlalakṣatā |
vinītatā ghārmikatā guṇāḥ sādhvābhigamikāḥ ||
guṇairetairupetaḥ san suvyakkamabhigamyate |
tathā ca kurvīta yathā gacchellokābhigamyatām ||” (4.6.9)^[5]

The qualities of a worthy ruler are the following—Nobility of his lineage, composure (in all circumstances, fair or foul) youthful vigour, good conduct, compassion promptness (in executing royal business) consistency (in speech and action), truthfulness, rendering due service to the learned (vṛddhasevā) gratefulness, faith in divine dispensations, intelligence, association with the large-hearted (liberal) men (and not with men of narrow out look), possession of strong feudatories (śakyasāmanta), well able to assist the king (in tackling the enemies), deep devotion (to spiritual and material affairs), farsightedness, energy; purity (internal and external), ambition (to effect expansion of territory and augmentation of wealth sthūlalakṣya proper of self-restraint and piety Endowed with these qualities (sādhyābhigamikā), a king enjoys the support of the honest people (they become his ardent followers).

Beside this king should have qualities of intellect, qualities of energy and personal excellences. They are—

“śuśrūṣāśravaṇagrahaṇadhāraṇavijñānohāpohatattvābhiniveśāḥ prajñāguṇāḥ |” (6.1.4)^[6]

“Desire to learn, listening, learning, retention, thorough understanding, reflecting; rejecting (false views) and intentness on truth,—these are the qualities of intellect.”^[7]

And—

śoryamamarṣaḥ śīghratā dākṣyaṃ cotsāhaguṇāḥ | (6.1.5)^[8]

“Bravery, resentment, quickness and dexterity,—these are the qualities of energy.”^[9]

And—

“vāgmī pragalbhaḥ smṛtimativalāvānudagraḥ svavagrahaḥ kṛtaśilpo vyasane daṇḍanāyyupakārāparayordṛṣṭapratikārī hrīmānāpatprakṛtyorviniyoktādīrghadūradarśī deśakāla—puruṣakārakāryapradhānaḥ sandhivikramatyagasaṃyamapaṇaparacchidravibhāgī saṃvṛto'dīnābhihāsyajihmabhrukuṭīkṣaṇaḥ kāmakroghalobhastambhacāpalopatāpapaiśunyahīnaḥ śakalaḥ smitodagrābhibhāṣī vṛddhīpadeśācāra ityatmasampat | (6.1.6)147

“Eloquent, bold, endowed with memory, intellect and strength, exalted easy to manage, trained in arts, free from vices, able to lead the army, able to requite obligations and injury in the prescribed manner, possessed of a sense of shame able to take suitable action in calamities and in normal conditions, seeing long and far, attaching prominence to undertakings at the proper place and time and with appropriate human endeavour, able to discriminate between place and fighting, giving and withholding, and (observance of) conditions and (striking at) the enemy’s weak points, well-guarded, not laughing in an undignified manner, with a glance which is straight and without a frown, devoid of passion, anger, greed, stiffness, fickleness, troublesomeness slanderousness, sweet in speech, speaking with a smile and with dignity, with conduct conforming to the advice of elders-these are the personal excellence.^[10]

Ministr (amātya)

The minister (amātya) is adviser of king (svāmī). To rule the kingdom king should appoint the ministers and should consult with them about Pañcāṅgamantra etc.

According to the Arthaśāstra the number of minister (amātya) should be three, four, twelve, sixteen twenty or the king would appoint ministers according to his necessity.

“mantripariṣadaṃ dvādaśāmātyankurvīta” iti mānavāḥ | “ṣoḍaṣa” iti vārhaspatyaḥ | “viṃśatimṅgaityauśanasāḥ | yathāsāmarthyam iti koṭilyaḥ” || 1-15.47-50 ||^[11]

“He should appoint a council consisting of twelve ministers, say the followers of Manu. “Sixteen” say the followers of Bṛhaspati. ‘Twenty’ say the followers of Uśanasa, According to capacity says Kauṭilya.”^[12]

In this context Manu says the number of ministers are seven or eight.

Manu says—

“maulañ śāstravidaḥ śūrāllābghalakṣān kulodgatān |
sacivān saptacāṣṭau vā prakurvīta parīkṣitān” || 7.54 ||^[13]

“Let him appoint seven or eight ministers whose ancestors have been royal servants who are versed in the sciences heroes skilled in the use of weapons and descended from (noble) families and who have been tried.^[14]

The Country (Janapada)

“madhye cānte ca sthanavānātmadhāraṇaḥ paradhāraṇaścāpadi svārakṣaḥ svājīvaḥ śatrudveṣī śakyasāmantaḥ paṅkapāṣāṇeṣaraviṣamakaṇṭakaśreṇīvyālamṛgāṭavihīnaḥ kāntaḥ sītākhanidravyahastivanavān gavyaḥ pauruṣeyaḥ guptagocaraḥ paśumān adevamātṛko vāristhalapathābhyāmupetaḥ sāracitravahupaṇyaḥ daṇḍakarasahaḥ karmaśīlakarṣako'vāli—śasvāmyavaravarṇaprāyo bhakkaśucimanuṣyaḥ iti janapadasampat” || (6.1.8)^[15]

“Possessed of strong positions in the centre and at the frontiers, capable of sustaining itself and others in times of distress, easy to protect, providing excellent (means of) livelihood, malevolent towards enemies, with weak neighbouring princes, devoid of mud, stones, salty ground, uneven land, thorns, bands, wild animals, deer and forest tribes, charming, endowed with agricultural land, mines, material forests and elephant forests, beneficial to cattle, beneficial to men, with protected pastures, rich in animals, not depending on rain for water, provided with water—routes and land-routes, with valuable, manifold and plenty of commodities, capable of bearing fines and taxes, with farmers devoted to work, with a wise master, inhabited mostly by the lower varṇas, with men loyal and honest, these are the excellences of a country.^[16]

The fortified city (durga)

There are four types of fort mainly: 1. Water fort, 2. Mountain fort, 3. Desert fort and 4. Jungle fort”.

“caturdiśaṃ janapadānte samparāyikaṃ daivakṛtaṃ durgakārayet | antardvīpaṃ sthalaṃ vā nimnāvaruddhamaudakaṃ , prāntaraṃ guhyaṃ vā pārvataṃ, nirudakastaṃmbamiriṇaṃ vā dhānvanaṃ, khañjanodakaṃ stamvagahanaṃ vā vanadurgam” | (2.3.1)^[17]

“In all four quarters, on the frontiers of the country, he should cause a nature made fortress, equipped for fight, to be made: a water fort (either) an island in the midst of water or high land shut in by water (or) a mountain fort (either) consisting of rocks or a cave (or) a desert fort (either) one without water and shrubs or a salty region, or a Jungle fort (either) a marshy tract with water or a thicket of shrubs.”^[18]

In this context Manu says about six types of durga—

“dhanvaduṃrga mahīdurgaṃ vārkṣameva vā |
nṛdurgaṃ giridurgaṃ vā samāśritya vaset puram” || 7.70 || 157

“Let him build (there) a town, making (for his safety) a fortress, protected by a desert, or a fortress built of (stone and) earth, or one protected by water or trees or one. (formed by a encampment of armed) men or a hill-fort”.^[19]

Manu says—

“sarveṇa tu prayatnena giridurgaṃ samāśrayet |
eṣāṃ hi vāhuguṇyena giridugaṃ viśiṣyate” || 7.71 ||¹⁵⁹

“Let him make every effort to secure a hill fort for amongst all those (fortresses mentioned) a hill fort is distinguished by many superior qualities”.^[20]

According to Manu among the six kinds of forts the hill fort suits the purpose of the king best. There may be made his residence.

But Kauṭilya however speaks on the relative utility and importance of those forts.

He says that water and mountain fortifications are the best suited to the defence of populous centres while desert and forest fortifications of habitations in wilderness.

“teṣāṃ nadī parvatadurgaṃ janapadārakṣasthanaṃ, dhānvanavanadurgamaṭavīsthanam, āpadyapasāro vā ||” (2.3.2) 161

“Among them a river fort and a mountain fort are places for the protectors of the country, a desert fort and a jungle fort are places for foresters or places of retreat in time of calamity”.^[21]

The Treasury (Kośa)

There are four types of treasury (kośa) 1. Jewels (ratna), 2. articals of high value (sāra), 3. articals of small value (phalgu), and 4. Forest produce (kupya).

In this context Kauṭilya says—

“kośādhyakṣaḥ kośa—praveśyaṃ rantaṃ sāraṃ phalgu kuṇyaṃ vā tajjātakaraṇādhiṣṭhitaḥ pratigṛhnīyāt” | (2.11.1)^[22]

“The superintendent of the Treasury should receive Jewels, articles of high value, articles of small value or forest produce, to be received into the treasury, (while) presiding over bureaus of experts in the (various) lines”.^[23]

Here articles of high value (sāra) and articles of small value (phalgu) may be included in jewels (ratna). Kupya may not be included in it. Because there is a chapter named kupyādhyakṣa but there are not any chapter named sāradhyakṣa or phalgvādhyakṣa.

Kauṭilya says—

“dharmādhigataḥ pūrvaiḥ svayaṃ vā hemaruṇyaprāyaścitrasthūlaratnahiraṇyo dīrghāmaṇyāpadamanāyatiṃ saheta iti kośasampad” | (6.1.10)^[24]

‘Aquired lawfully by the ancestors or by oneself, consisting mostly of gold and silver, containing various kinds of big Jewels and cash, (one) that would withstand a calamity even of a long duration in which there is no income these are the excellence of a treasury’.^[25]

That means—

“Accrued Justly by inheritance or by self acquisition, rich in gold and silver, having deposits of gems of various colours and sizes and gold coins and capable of withstanding famine of long duration, is the best treasury”.^[26]

Here lawfully or justly means the collected crops etc. which are approved payable six or ten parts of produced crops of the subject.

Āyati means, according to kangle’s edition ‘income, revenue’, one that would wisthstand a calamity even of a long duration in which there is no income.

The army (Daṇḍa)

“pitṛpaitāmaho nityo vasyastuṣṭabhṛtyaputradāraḥ pravāseṣvavisaṃvāditaḥ sarvatrāpratihato daḥkhasaho vahuyuddhaḥ sarvayuddhapraharaṇavidyāviśāradaḥ sahavṛddhikṣayikatvādadvaidhyaḥ kṣatraprāya iti daṇḍasampat |” 6.1.11 168

“Inherited from the father and the grandfather, consistant obedient, with the soldiers’ sons and wives contented, not disappointed during marches, nhindered every where, able to put up with troubles, that has fought many battles, skilled in the science of all types of war and weapons, not having a separate interest because of prosperity and adversity shared (with the king), consisting mostly of Kṣatriyas, these are the excellences of an army.”^[27]

The ally (Mitra)

“pitṛpitāmahaṃ nityaṃ vaśyamadvaidhyaṃ mahallaghusamutthamiti mitrasampat” | (6.1.12)^[28]

“Allied from the days of the father and the grandfather, constant, under control, not having a separate interest, great able to mobilise quickly, these are the excellence of an ally”.^[29]

According to Kangle: here mahat means, a person with counsel power, mighty power and force power and nitya means long standing.

Like kauṭilya Manu did not explain saptapṛakrti.

Magha also well vrsed about the saptaprakṛti of a Vijigīṣu king.

“sthane śamavatāṃ śaktyā vyāyāme vṛddhiraṅginām |
ayathā valamārambho nidānaṃ kṣayasampadaḥ ||” 2.94 ||^[30]

“There will be prosperity of kings having forbearence in proper place if there is activity proportionate to their powers (there will be development of self restraining bodied being if there is exercise proportionate to their strength). Any affair not in proportion to one’s power, is the prime cause of excessive loss.”^[31]

Forbearance, in season and out of season is not a very valuable asset and so scarcely counts for anything. But a forbearance, just in unison with the occasion,—in an enviable advantage a precious commodity counting for much. A king who has forbearance on proper occasions, can acquire prosperity provided he applies all the six expedients quite in proportion to his powers of kingship, energy and counsel. A man who has self restraint in proper place can acquire a monstrous volume of physical strength by taking careful bodily exercise according to his powers. Any undertaking, taken up at haphazard, without a power consideration of pros and cons is the surest road to a rushing ruin.

A state has limbs (aṅga’ s) like a bodied person. They are lord (Svāmi) minister (amātya) country (janapada), castle (durga) treasury (kośa) punish (daṇḍa) and friend (mitra). The improvement of body become possible with proper exercise. Like that if the Vijigīṣu king applies sandhi, vigraha etc. six fold policy in appropriate time then his rājyāṅga’ s become nourished.

It needs rest at the interval of exercise. Otherwise it is fruitless Again exercise without proper way causes harm.

So, considering own power Vijigīṣu king would be forgiving if necessary, otherwise it would be in vain.

Here Uddhava says if without measuring own strength and the enemies Śiśupāla is attacted then decline would come soon. Mallinātha says in his commentary of this verse:

“tasmādasmākam akasmāccaidyaskandanam aśreyaskaram iti bhāvaḥ |”

Here war is compared with exercise. Excessive or without proper method exercise sunmons nerve disease. So it needs rest at intervals. Otherwise desired result would not come. Similarly in case of war and sandhi etc. success depends upon forgiveness sometimes. According to necessity a king would be active or inactive. Otherwise success is not possible.

A little opinion of minister can make great purpose. According to Uddhava’s opinion to kill Śiśupāla, Śrīkṛṣṇa should attend the Rājasūya sacrifice organized by Yudhiṣṭhira. It is not the right time to kill Śiśupāla. Śrīkṛṣṇa promised Śiśupāla’s mother to forgive Śiśupāla’s hundred mistakes done by him. At present this figure has not completed. If Śrīkṛṣṇa attacks Śiśupāla right now then the promise will be broken.

We get this mentality in the second canto of the epic verse no-one hundred and eight.

“sahiṣye śatamāgāṃsi sunoste iti yantvayā |
pratīkṣyaṃ tat pratīkṣyāyai pitṛṣvasre pratiśrutam” || 2.108 ||^[32]

“You ought to observe what you promissed to your paternal aunt viz. 1 will endure your son’s hundred faults.”^[33]

Any violation of the solemn promise made by you to your paternal aunt to the effect that you would take no offence if Śiśupāla be guilty even of a hundred faults in one time, must constitute a grave courage upon your honesty which no body should impugn and which you should always abide by.

We came to know that vast knowledge about Pañcāṅgamantra of the poet Māgha in his epic the Śiśupālavadha, in the second canto, verse no.

One hundred two, one hundred three and one hundred four. It is specified there before applying Pañcāṅgamantra it should be consulted.

Without consultation if the act begins than the best friend can also be foe.

“makhavighnāya sakalamitthamutthāpya rājakam |
hanta jātāmajātāreḥ prathamena tvayāriṇā” || 2.102 ||^[34]

“Having raised up in this way all the Kings for the impediment of the sacrifice alas! You will be the first foe of Yudhiṣṭira where—of no enemy has been born.”^[35]

“If you now lead an expedition against Śiśupāla then almost all the kings siding with you or him as the case may be, will be engaged in the fight and no body will think of Joining to the Rājasūya sacrifice which is shortly to be celebrated by Yudhiṣṭira. Thus, unwillingly and unintentionally, you will be Yudhiṣṭira’s first enemy because your activity against Śiśupāla will held off all other kings from the sacrifice.”^[36]

“sambhāvya tvāmatibharakṣamaskandhaṃ sa vāndhavaḥ |
sahāyamadhvaradhurāṃ dharmarājo vivakṣate” || 2.103 ||^[37]

“That relative Dharmarāja thinking you to be an ally having shoulders capable of carrying heavy weights or burdens desires to bear the burden of sacrifice.

……

Yudhiṣṭira has lanched into the scheme of instituting this sacrifice simply because he has counted upon your magnificent and substantial help. Without an anticipation of your whole hearted prospective assistance, he would never have dared embark wpon his difficult task of holding the Rājasūya sacrifice.”^[38]

“mahanmāno'nugṛhnanti bhajamānān ripūnapi |
sapatyīḥ prāpayantyavdhiṃ sindhavo naganimnagāḥ” || 2. 104 ˇ 181

“High souled persons favour even yielding (submitting) enemies. Largest rivers take the mountain stremlets, their co-wives to the ocean.”^[39]

“It is the nature of the great to be friend those who are helpless-no matter whether the latter are friends or foes However heinous and cankerous a culprit may be a magnanimous person inspite of the festering feelings of antagonism, will readily pardon him when he becomes submissive and seeks his protection. Large rivers, we see a practical illustration never grudge to lead the small hill rivulets their rival co-wives to ocean which is their common lord”.^[40]

Gods become pleased by worship but they become more pleased by sacrificial deeds. It is said in Samhitā and Brāhmaṇa—

‘havirbhūjo vai devāḥ’

‘makhapriyā vai devāḥ’ etc.

(As it is seen in the Śiśupālavadha canto. two verse no. 106 edited by Annada Shankar Pahari, p. 290).

The intention of Uddhava’s speech was that all the kings will be present in the sacrificial ceremony and at the beginning by ceremony Śrīkṛṣṇa will be honoured of offerings. For this reason Śiśupāla will be angry. Then it will be easy to kill him.

It will be also possible to satisfy God from both purpose i.e. divine work as well as sacrificial ceremony.

“manyase'rivadhaḥ śreyān prītaye nākināmiti |
puroḍāśabhujāmiṣṭamiṣṭaṃ karttumalantarām” || 2.106 ||^[41]

“Do you think the decimation of the enemy more commendable for the satisfaction of Gods? A sacrifice is quite sufficient to fulfil the desire of Gods i.e eaters of sacrificial cakes.”^[42]

“If you are bent upon satisfying the Gods the best expedient you ought to hit upon will be to institute a scarifice on a scale so vast as will be sufficient to fulfil your purpose. A monstrous march against Śiśupāla must be, at present, committed to be an ill chosen job which should better be forsaken.”^[43]

As a minister Uddhava is perfect. To implement five systems serious consultation is necessary and also it is possible to implement six fold policy properly. So, the importance of ministers in state policy is not ignorable.

No act can be succeeded without pre—planning. Without consultation with the minister like Uddhava assassination of Śiśupāla was impossible. Poet Māgha composed his epic Śiśupālavadha in twenty cantos which is included in bṛhattrayī. With the concept of Sabhāparvan of Mahābhārata, Śrīmadbhāgbat and Viṣṇpurāṇa and the knowledge of politics poet Māgha composed his epic Śiśupālavadha.

Kingship is possible only with the aid of assistants. Among the assistants ministers are very important aid. So, appointment of minister is very important factor. Māgha reflectd these political ideas in his epic. In the verses No. 2/56, 82, 94 the words amātya, prakṛti (svāmi, amātya etc.) and aṅginām (amātya is one of the aṅga) represent amātya. In the 2/28-29 No. verses the word mantra and in the 2/12 No. verse the word mata represent pañcāṅgamantra which is related with minister (amātya). Before applying pañcāṅgamantra it should be consulted. Verse no. 2/102, 103, 104, 106, 108 prove this. Māgha also well aware of the nature of the meeting hall according to the ancient seripures. Verse no. 2/2, 4 prove this. Without the minister’s activity a kingdom is sure to be handicapped. Even in such circumstances a king is unable to be usefull. Commentator Mallināthaṇḍ‹FW fiF£FX ÊFY= ḍ‹Fk ı‹FFPºP∂F ⁄FFÊF: (2/8ṇ

With the above discussion it is not difficult to understand that as a minister Uddhava has all qualities of the minister of first category. He has no defective allurement and also no attraction towards anything else. His sagacity reminds us Brahmin ministers mentioned by Manu.

The Śiśupālavadha of poet Māgha is also well known like Bhāravi’s Kirātārjunīya. The Śiśupālavadha is an epic, not a political scripture. We come to know that Māgha has vast political thoughts and ideas based on political facts. He composed the epic Śiśupālavadha with that knowledge. He gathered his political knowledge from different political scriptures. He mentioned about the importance, ability, quality and utility of ministers. Poet Māgha mainly wanted to compose his epic basing on political facts and stories which is related to Śrīkṛṣṇa of the Mahābhārata.

From these ślokas we come to know that poet Māgha is very much conscious about the appointment of ministers to perform the kings administration. King should conscious about the unserviceable ministers. So, he should test them through secret test named “upadhā”.

It is said in Indian ethics and the Arthaśāstra that king is characterised by saptaprakṛti. A king can perform his administrative works with the aid of assistants.

The quality and ability of minister and subjects which are to be consulted with them are discussed in the Indian political science and the Arthaśāstra. Those matters are slightly discussed in this epic basing on the knowledge of poet. Māgha is a poet with the sound knowledge of the Indian political science and the Arthaśāstra.

Śisupālavadha is a Mahākāvya based on politics. Some technical terms of politics are used in some verses relevantly in this epic. In this chapter of my dissertation minister (amātya) is a relevant technical term of politics.

It may be surmised from the above discussion that Māgha is poet, well versed in politics.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

R.P. Kangle: The Kauṭīliya Arthaśāstra, part–I, p.164.

[2]:

ibid., part-II, p. 314.

[3]:

Rajendra Lala Mitra, (Ed.): Nītisāra, p. 67.

[4]:

ibid., part-II, p-314.

[5]:

Rajendra Lala Mitra: Op.cit., p. 09.

[6]:

R.P. Kangle: Op.cit., p.164.

[7]:

ibid., part.-II, p. 314.

[8]:

ibid., part. I, 164.

[9]:

ibid, part.-II, p. 314.

[10]:

ibid., part. II, pp,. 314-315.

[11]:

Manabendu Bandyopadhaya: Op.cit., p. 664.

[12]:

ibid., part-II, p. 35.

[13]:

Manabendu Bandyopadhaya: Op.cit., p. 655.

[14]:

Ashokanath Shastri: Op. cit., p. 67.

[15]:

R.P. Kangle: Op.cit., part-I, p. 164.

[16]:

ibid., part. II, p. 315.

[17]:

ibid., part. I, p. 35-36.

[18]:

ibid., part-II, p. 61.

[19]:

Ashokanath Shastri: Op.cit., p. 86.

[20]:

Ashokanath Shastri, Op. cit., p. 90.

[21]:

ibid., part-II, p. 61.

[22]:

ibid., part-I, p. 51.

[23]:

ibid., part-II, p. 97.

[24]:

ibid., part. I, p. 164.

[25]:

ibid., part-II, p. 316.

[26]:

T. G. Sastri, (Ed.): The arthasastra of Kauṭilya, part-II, p. 670.

[27]:

ibid., part-II, p. 316.

[28]:

ibid., part-I, p. 165.

[29]:

ibid., part-II, p. 316.

[30]:

Haridas Siddhantavagisha: Op. cit., p. 92.

[31]:

Sitanath Kavyaratna & Madhab Dass Sankhyatirtha: Op.cit., p. 270.

[32]:

Haridas Siddhantavagisha: Op. cit., p. 98.

[33]:

Sitanath Kavyaratna and Madhab Dass Sankhyatirtha: Op.cit., p. 315.

[34]:

Haridas Siddhantavagisha: Op. cit., p. 95.

[35]:

Sitanath Kavyaratna & Madhab Dass Sankhyatirtha: Op.cit., p. 297.

[36]:

loc.cit.

[37]:

Haridas Siddhantavagisha: Op.cit., p. 96.

[38]:

Sitanath kavyaratna & Madhab Dass Sankhyatirtha: Op.cit., p. 299.

[39]:

Sitanath Kavyaratna & Madhab Dass Sankhyatirtha: Op.cit., p. 302.

[40]:

loc. cit.

[41]:

Haridas Siddhantavagisha: Op. cit., p. 97.

[42]:

Sitanath Kavyaratna & Madhab Dass Sankhyatirtha: Op.cit., p. 308.

[43]:

loc. cit.