The merits and measures of food suitable for the Elephant

Gajaśāstra before mentioning food for elephants very interestingly provides us with details of measurement pattern in Magadha. These details are given in verses 1-4 as follows^[1] :

8 madhūlikā fruits = 1 mustard seed
8 mustard seeds = 1 barley grain
4 barley grains = 1 kākiṇī.
4 kākiṇīs = 1 māṣa
4 māṣas = 1 śāṇaka,
4 śāṇasa = 1 suvarṇa
4 suvarṇa = 1 pala
4 palas = 1 kuḍuba
4 kuḍuba = 1 prastha
4 prastha = 1 āḍhaka
4 āḍhakas = 1 droṇa
16 droṇas = 1 kārī

The detailed measurement of rasas i.e. fluid or liquid is given separately as follows^[2] :

5 kuḍubas = 1 prastha
13 ½ palas 1 prastha of water to be added
10 palas of medicine should be put in a droṇa of powder
In 1 droṇa, 20 palas of medicines should be put

Similarly the measurement of oils is also provided which is mainly for medicinal purposes. This is as follows^[3] :

½ āḍhaka of oil in 1 droṇa
½ prastha (of oil) should be known (as usable) in anointing the limbs of elephants
2 prasthas of oil to be used in anointing the whole (body).
1 kuḍuba of ghee mixed with red chalk (probably geru or hematite lumps) for an elephant in rut for rubbing its scrotum
½ kuḍumba of crushed ink and one kuḍuba of ghee must be massaged on the head to heal wounds of the goad

The measurement of lamp oil is as follows:^[4]

10 palas in 1 droṇa each of guḍa and salt

The proportion of rice and oil is 2 prasthas to a droṇa. The elephant should be fed this in the evening with meat, oil and rasa.

The inflamed elephant should be fed curds, meat and guḍa in the morning, vigilantly.

Among the oils, ghee is known to be especially the best. It is sweet, cools the semen, it is light and soothing. It is good for wind and bile, increases fat and semen; it inflames dysentery; it gives strength and long life, and is good for the eyes. According to the author there is no better medicine than ghee for all. The elephant inflicted with bile, the naturally thin, young, weak-footed and elephants with eye-ailment, should be given ghee, as well as newly-caught elephants. Ghee endowed with colour, taste and odour enhances the strength, complexion, speed and tusks of an elephant. However, that which is kept over-long, or burnt or rancid, or kept in a dirty vessel, or full of maggots–if that is fed to an elephant, it is weakened, and ace weakened, it refuses food.^[5]

Verse 21 of Gajaśāstra^[6] and a verse in Mātaṅgalīlā^[7] mention that those who have tearful eyes and are haggard, the young, worn out with carrying loads, bilious, thin-limed, wearied with constant travel, those which are old, those which no longer desire females, those which are exhausted with the loss of blood, flesh or ichor, and those long stiff-limbed–for them ghee is the best salutary object. This advice has been mentioned as a prescription from the king of Kaliṅga. This reminds one of the Suśruta Saṃhitā wherein Divodās Dhanvantari who is the teacher of Suśruta and his fellow class mates is also mentioned as the king of Kasi. Thus rulers also specialized in such branches of medicine and surgery.

The sages prescribe sesame oil as next best after ghee. The sesame oil, which is strengthening to the skin, tasty, appeasing of fire, inflames semen, it is astringent and sweet, cures wind and phlegm, and is acrid for indigestion, kills worms, destroys bile, reduces fat and clears the genitals.^[8]

The fat elephants, whose limbs are made heavy through lack of exercise, those assailed by wind, those who are lazy, those which are windy by nature or phlegmatic, and those elephants who are exhausted by tying, those whose flesh suddenly wears away while travelling, those with worms in their bowels should (all) be given sesame oil.^[9] Females must always be given sesamum oil. Since they are (naturally) windy, the wind is inflamed in their bowels.^[10] This oil generates energy and enhances spirit and strength. The elephant should eat a meal properly mixed with it. Food enhanced with oil nourishes the elephant, improves digestive power, helps to digest food. (But) that which is dirty in the vessel, that which is infested with maggots, or that which is astringent or sour, that which causes dysentery, that which makes the (elephant) pale–such oil should be avoided for the elephant. Fat, too, reduces wind in the elephant, and is sweet.^[11]

Vṛṣyā^[12] i.e. an asparagus plant is mentioned as sweet and it helps to cure indigestion and helps to generate power and improves complexion. It is prescribed in obstruction of semen, and is considered (good) in paralysis and goitre. It is best in breaks, cracks and fractures of the limbs. Marrow is strengthening and especially cures wind and bile and increases phlegm, fat and semen of elephants. It cures the ailments of the wind, improves sexual vigour and purifies flow of semen. Half a measure of oil in ghee, half of it in three times is the measure of marrow and fat. In rice, the best measure of oil must be applied. Three-fourth of that is medium and half is the lowest. This the sequence from old age up to death.^[13]

In wounds of the chest and breaks, thirty two āḍhakas of fat and marrow should be given to the best elephant, twenty eight to the medium and twenty four to the worst. Oil should be fed to the elephant with good digestion for seven days, to the one with middling digestion, five days, and to the one with poor digestion, three days. Then its bowel is cleaned with the aid of purging. Kṛsara mixed with milk, saffron and curd should be given to the elephant to drink to make it grow, together with five salts and three acrids. The flesh of animals such as buffaloes and birds of the woods and water should be given fifty palas to a droṇa. (The flesh of) animals (like) boars, sheep, buffaloes, rabbits, goats and deer should be given for the good health and nourishment. The essence of the flesh of boars, buffaloes, chickens, asses, camels, rhinos, porcupines, lizards, cows, jackals and sheep, cooked with sour and salt seasoned with pomelos should be given to the elephant, half an āḍhaka to each aratni. The blood of animals living on dry ground, forests and water and the flesh of the forest animals is astringent; (the flesh of) animals on dry ground is said to be sour. The flesh of the young of these animals is phlegmy because it is tender. The flesh of those (animals) killed with poison or dead of some disease, or rancid flesh, is totally prohibited. The flesh of these creatures, healthy and young (is good). Veśavāra is good for elephants, or the essence (both) (of flesh), in the essence of the three acrids, in one pala. One kuḍuba of oil in one droṇa and half an āḍhaka of curd, crushed properly, should be fed to the elephant at meal times. For each aratni, one load of yavasa, four āḍhakas of rice, eight (or half) kuḍubas of salt and ten palas of guḍa should be fed (to the elephant).^[14]

Elsewhere an alternative given is one aratni, one droṇa of rice, half an āḍhaka of oil, an ten palas each of guḍa and salt are prescribed. In a meal thus planned in accordance to rule, from the broth comes blood, from that flesh, from that fat, from that bones. From that comes marrow, from that delight, from that ichor, and the beauty, victory, good looks, spirit, and good health. Thus a meal brings about other merits too. A meal should regularly, be given to the elephant–not oil, nor ghee, nor milk, no flesh, nor broth, nor wine–it is happy with pure rice and grass. The text also mentions that at dawn, grass and oil, measuring half an āḍhaka, three fourth of that to the best age and two third to the worst age, causes strength, ichor and speed and cures diseases. To elephants which are weakened, emaciated, of poor digestion, inflicted with wind and afflicted with phlegm, grass should not be given by one wishing for their good. It should be given for the enhancement of all humours and appeasement of all distress, especially when wind is inflamed. In the morning, when the elephant has eaten good grass and rice, oil like the oil in rice in sweets is prescribed. These are prescribed by the śāstras as sweetmeat for the elephants: in an āḍhaka of cake, viḍaṅga, ākṣiba, gruel, māṣas and wheat^[15].

It is interesting to note that in the text Pālakāpya was being requested by the king of Aṅga to elaborate upon the four types of food. These four types are mentioned as bhojya (eatable), bhakṣya (eatable), lehya (licked) and peya (drinkable). Bhojya is of two types, refined and unrefined (verse 64-65). Refined are those which are consumed with rice, meat, oil, curds and milk and the unrefined ones are uncooked rice unrefined, (also) kabala, leaves, broken branches and aṅgamūla as well as grass is especially known as bhakṣya. The drinkables which elephants drink are mentioned as sour gruel made of grain, milk, churned (curd) and various juices. All these oils, refined or unrefined, twice or three times, and mahāsneha, oil and ghee twice (daily) and fat three times, all the oils, meat, fat, marrow etc. as well, uncooked fat is called mahāsneha. These are the drinkables. Among the licked category of food are utkārikā, veśavāra, and sweets. Utkārikā constitute of the fruits of priyālu, lotus, date, madhūka and jack-fruit–a pala of them finely powdered should be cooked with ghee. They should be given (to the elephant) with fish roe and sugar. Finely ground wheat, pippalī and rice along with ghee and guḍa should be cooked by the intelligent physician. Barley flour well-ground, and wet kaśeruka as well as lotus roots, finely powdered, should be cooked with ghee, pepper and guḍa. This should be given to the elephant to improve his body, digestion and strength. Veśavāra constitutes of meat with bones, well-stewed, should be finely crushed, with a stone, and cooked together with pippalī, śuṣṭhi, pepper, ghee and guḍa. This is veśavāra, Great soul! In monsoon, summer and śarat, it should be stewed with sauvīraka. In the other seasons, it should be taken down when well. Thus veśavāra is said by the wise physician to increase (the flow of) ichor, and bring on ichor in these (elephants) without it.^[16]

As the merits of food are provided in the text similarly the demerits are also described.^[17] Oil mixed with water is very good for curing diseases of wind. Ghee mixed with milk cures bile and nourishes the young. Marrow along with fat heals breaks and chest wounds. Meat of all sort is strengthening and enhances digestion. Vāruṇī wine (or dūrvā grass) inflames fire and causes lightening of the limbs. It is pleasing to the mind, enhances sexual vigour, causes growth and increases (production of) semen. It destroys worms when mixed with oil and cures phlegm. It is good for those bloated with wind as well as those with diseases of the wind.^[18] Madirā with grape and mixed with ghee is good for (an elephant) with broken or dislocated body and one with dislocated or displaced chest. Those elephants exhausted with travelling long distances, overcome by killings and imprisonments, and these suddenly sent to battle–to these elephants should be given madirā with guḍa.^[19] Those which have been gravely injured in strong conflict with enemy elephants–to those elephants, should be given varuṇī along with all (other) taste, except salt. After tying to pillars, weakness of digestion and tying to the curtle, madirā with salt is good for the elephant. Those which are exhausted or thirsty or those passing (excessive) urine and stool, those nor desiring food and those afflicted with diarrhoea, those elephants especially should be given kādambarī wine.^[20] The wine that is discoloured by fire, that which is contaminated by the vessel, those ruined wines should always be prohibited. The wine that is the colour of transparent oil, or a lump of ghee, smelling of karavīra, night lotuses and (day) lotuses, and tasting biller-sweet, that is normal and strong. Such wine devoid of fault should be given (to elephants). For a healthy elephant, wine is good as a drink. (Wine) with guḍa is good for (elephants) wearied with carrying loads, travelling, injuries and tying up. The wine should be added one fourth measure to the quantity of rice.^[21] When the elephant drinks wine with grape (juice), the grape (juice) should be one sixteenth of (the measure of) rice.

Now are related the merits and demerits of milk. Milk of cows or buffaloes is good with curds. It is cool, sweet, gentle, causing vigour and growth, is beneficial, causes long life and increases sexual vigour, (so) milk is the best medicine. It inflames dysentery, quickly strengthens, and destroys diseases of the wind by its sweetness and gentleness. It also destroys (diseases of) bile by its coolness and sweetness. It is also a medicine for raktapitta and good for phlegm.^[22] Milk with wetted flesh of animals and mustard is good. That makes an elephant have pleasant skin and hair. That which is mixed with water and sour (food) and left overnight makes the (elephant’s) flesh firm and increases it, and (also) makes its mind and senses pleasant. That which is contaminated in the vessel immediately inflames all ailments, causes thirst and vomiting as well as causing dysentery. Milk that is newly boiled and pure has all the qualities. Drinking milk in diseases of the wind is praised. In paralysis of the manyā^[23], lock-jaw, vomiting, swelling, headache, broken bones, wanness and birth, as well as all sorts of stomach aches and aches in the genitals, milk is beneficial.^[24] Those with their ichor exhausted by overflow, elderly, the emaciated, those weary with overwork, those in rut, the weak, the languid, those burnt by sharp food, those assailed in many ways, those afflicted by bile, the diseased–to (all these) milk should be given. It appeases the heat and (the elephants) recover digestion. Good wind prevails and it has a pleasant appearance. In one aratni, measure of one āḍhaka of milk is prescribed. Those whose phlegm, bile and wind is inflamed should be given curds in the said measure.^[25] It is sour curd a sour drink, it burns and is said to be heavy. It causes kapha and bile and moisture. Fine, sweet-scented and gentle, it causes immediate vigour; it is sweet and inflaming, causing sexual vigour and strength. In indigestion, it is acrid and destroys worms. Unimaginably powerful in its qualities, curd cures all diseases. Emaciation and lack of vigour as well as roughness is caused by honey. Consuming and anointing with honey leads to cure the kapha and bile. In vomiting and painful dysentery, poisoning of elephants, excess of kapha and flesh, honey should always be given.^[26]

Those elephants exhausted with long travel, those afflicted by bile and those diseased as well as the unhappy ones–for them sugarcane is beneficial. Sugarcanes are sweet, good for diseases of bile, enhance ichor and semen, nourish weak humours, enhance fat, flesh and blood and should be given three times a day in summer or śarat. After seven nights in monsoon, after ten nights in spring, they should be given once a fortnight in autumn and winter. To an elephant in the best age should be given five hundred sugarcanes, three hundred and fifty to a middle one.^[27] To the worst elephant should be given two hundred and fifty. The merits of massaging the limbs of elephants who suffer from diseases of the limbs due to pains like being tied up tightly, being turned the wrong way, running on uneven ground, mud, low ground or water, hurting themselves due to a misstep, thus their limbs are incapacitated, or due to wrong food, bed or walking into trouble, or from bad places etc. have also been given in detial. Their limbs, massaged with oil or fat become tender and dropsy is cured. Their nails do not split nor do the soles of their feet wear out, their feet do not burn in travelling, their hair and eyes are pleasant, and they come to no harm if their feet are massaged.^[28] Of the soles of their feet are massaged with oil at proper time mixed with powdered triphalā, the soles of their feet are firm and devoid of exudations, splits and cracks. Massaging of the body removes faults of the skin due to hitting or tying up, the wounds of the limbs are healed, it cures paralysis etc., reduces the problems of cold and wind, renders thighs and body soft and light, and causes tenderness, power, strength and comfort. The head wounds are healed and the hair becomes soft, and the flow of semen and the eyes become clear if the head is massaged. By anointing the tusks regularly, the tusks have firm sockets, are firm, smooth and devoid of pain, and are capable of hitting. The genitals of the elephant in rut burn due to constant passing of urine. It should always be massaged with ghee along with one pala of red chalk^[29]. Elephants always have good eyesight by anointing (their eyes) with ghee. They have no diseases of the eyes and their sight is strong^[30]. Just as constant watering of trees is done for the sake of the fruit, so the sprinkling of elephants with oil gives (them) strength.^[31]

The texts also mention that the elephant abode should be lit up. As scorpions, lizards, housegeckos, other worms which cause vomiting, these and (many) (others) harmful to the elephant, extremely poisonous snakes that come out in summer enter the elephant stall and cause harm to the elephant. Besides this on eating them, the elephant may get seriously ill or even die. If a lamp is lit at night, the elephant can easily recognise them. Therefore, a lamp must be lit at night for the good of the elephant. The text also mentions the amount of oil to be used in an elephant abode this is specified as 1 kuḍuba.

As the text provides details of treatment similarly it also mentions the good effects of intake of salt. Salt improves digestion and helps to digest the food, destroys worms and cures diseases of wind. The elephant drinks water after eating salt. Intake of large quantities of water purifies the bladder, kills worms, destroys wind, destroys diseases, immediately cures aversion to food, produces moisture in elephants–salt is like nectar, the judge of good (food)^[32]. However in the morning meal, salt should be avoided as it increases ailments. Salt in the afternoon enhances digestion and destroys ailments^[33]. Salt after food enhances digestion and destroys ailments. Ten, eight, seven and five palas of salt should be given to the Bhadra, Manda, Mṛga and mixed elephants (respectively) in autumn is one aratni.^[34] In śarat, summer, monsoon and spring, half of that. In (an elephant) who has kapha and wind, (it should be given) afterwards in spring and winter. A meal burdened with branches of trees, creepers, shrubs and grains without salt is extremely harmful like a sacrificial fire without hymns. It inflames all ailments and causes indigestion. What eating of earth does, so does a meal without salt. There are eight types of salt for the elephants: romaka (white salt), saindhava (rock salt), viḍa, saivarcala (black salt), suvarcikā, yavakṣāra (potassium nitrate), sāmudra (sea salt) and udbhida (plant salt). 10 palas of sāmudra should be given in a droṇaand five palas of the rest in one aratni.^[35]

Among the cereals vrīhi, śāli, śāṣṭhika, are excellent (as food); barley and wheat are medium; mudga, māṣa, udrava and kaṅgu are worst. A lump which is cool, wet and pure gives strength. A piṇḍa of food, consists of one prastha of rice. If the meal is raw, burnt, charred, over-boiled, over-hot or over-cold, less or more (than the prescribed amount), that is harmful to the elephants. Raw (food) causes dysentery, burnt (food) heat disease and loss of strength, charred (food) diarrhoea over-boiled and over-hot (food), bile, cold (food) wind and aversion to food, less (food than prescribed), ultimate death. Food contaminated with earth causes vomiting and aversion to food. Meals devoid of oil and salt should be avoided carefully like

poison. In the meal where the elephant, which has drunk water and bathed, is given grass, that meal is good for health of elephants.^[36]

The meal of elephants and horses is called vidhā with regular exercise and nourishment with grass, (the elephant’s) flesh increases. The elephants should be made happy with meals, from exercise comes ability to work, and nourishment from grass. From flesh there is strength and increase of flesh, (the elephant) is happy through food; through happiness, there is appeasement of the faults of humours.^[37] The pleasantness of their bowels is called good health. Drinking of sesamum oil is prescribed in autumn and monsoon. Marrow and fat should be given at spring. In śarat and summer, drinking of ghee prescribed. In autumn again or in summer, drinking of oil is prescribed as there are fruits and dry grass. Oil drunk in autumn is not properly digested. Drinking of oil in summer leads to fainting. Some like to feed oily food to the elephant. Some like to offer it as an addition to the food. The quantity of wet grass (to be fed to elephants) is one droṇa. Twice as much is to be fed if it is dry and light. Ripe paddy should be given half in the meal. If it is first ripening, it should be one fourth.^[38] Grass removes thirst, gives satisfaction and cures diarrhoea, it pleases the mind, destroys the three faults and purifies the blood. Grass destroys ailments of an elephant even when (these ailments) have arisen. Energy increases with grass, the senses are revived through grass. Grass cures weariness, exhaustion, absentmindedness, insomnia. Elephants eat grass, survive on grass, their life is grass. When they do not eat grass even when cajoled strongly, then, the elephants should be known to be ailing. From Soma, water is produced and grass is produced from water. (Therefore) elephants should be known to have Soma as their soul, coolness as their essence.^[39] Therefore, as the sun gradually travels north, they become emaciated due to lack of grass and lose in vigour. When the sun travels south, however, elephants are happy and undoubtedly relish good grass. At the time when there is no span in the oṣadhis, the elephants suffer from the sun’s rays and their vigour diminishes. To renew their vigour, all cold (food) should be given. In monsoon, grass growing in water is not desirable, but that growing on land is beneficial. In autumn, grass grown in the forest and on land is good. In summer, grass anointed with guḍa and water which are cooling (is good).^[40] Gruel and sweetmeats with anointment should be given. In monsoon, wet sweetmeats should be given. In the month of Proṣṭhapada (Bhādra) grass in which the knots have grown and with well-developed ears, slightly sweet and sour increases vigour. In the month of Āśvina, grass is fully developed and sweet. In the month of Kārtika, grass has seeds developed. It develops flesh, blood and marrow and increases vigour. It is sometimes wet and sometimes dry in Māgha and Phālguna dry ones are not liked by elephants. Even with food, drinking of oil, various beneficial food, snuff and vastikriyā, or with many kinds of herbs, elephants are not fit to ride without (eating) grass. Therefore, the life of those without grass is in danger.^[41]

The text further mentions that elephants must be nourished by oil, milk, wines, grass and various other foods as well as herbs. Paruṣa, udumbara, aśvattha, pippalī, plakṣa, bandhana, śālmalī, śāka, vārāhī, moda, mango, jack-fruit and banyan–these are called kabala and destroy bile and phlegm. Priyāla, palm, timiśa, kapittha, and ānanda trees as well as sprouting wheat is kabala which destroys kapha and bile. Sallakī, kṣīravṛkṣa, modakī, kiṇihī, karavīra, karṇikāra, kāśmarya and bamboo are kaṭaṃkaras and causes excess of fat and destruction of bile.^[42] The leaves of these (trees) are called pallavas. Garlic is called rasona (mixed one taste) because it lacks merely the sour taste. It destroys the three faults, produces ichor, inflames and purifies the bowels. Garlic is like nectar as it appeases the humours, causes sexual vigour, garlic with sesamum oil is to be given in utkarṇaka, jaundice, winds, goitre, paralysis of manyā, shoulder-ache, affection of the spleen, heart burn etc. for curing these ailments.^[43] Pure water is to be given as anupāna with these. In the seasons of monsoon, autumn, winter and spring, those elephants which have itching, ringworm, swellings and which are phlegmatic or afflicted with worms, should be given garlic as anupāna with pure water, mixed with ghee, oil, the three acrids and powdered viḍaṅga. When elephants are afflicted with raktapitta in summer and śarat, they should be given garlic mixed with grape-juice and powdered sugars, one fourth of the food or less, in order to cure the ailments. In one aratni, twenty palas of garlic cures ailments. The tastes astringent, acrid, bitter etc., arising from roots, stalks etc., go down to seed, with the heat of the sun’s rays; they are important and cannot cure the various diseases of the elephants.^[44] Therefore, the physician should follow properly the methods prescribed by the śāstras. Garlic is said to be astringent in the root, salty in the stalk, and devoid of the sour taste. In diseases (such as) mṛdu, gṛha, mahā, bāla, kukkuṭa, pākala and gout, paralysis, earache, (diseases) of the spleen, stomach, purging, fainting, stiffness of trunk or legs, spleen, gulma, desire to eat earth, and worms, crushed guggulu should be given to elephants by the physicians in order to cure the ailments, also in backache, ailments of the head and heart, and drunkenness.^[45] It is endowed with four tastes, devoid of salt and sour (tastes). It reduces wind due to its sweetness, and destroys bile due to its astringency; it reduces phlegm through its bitterness and lends energy through its acridness. Through its gentleness it gives strength and destroys worms. Starting from two palas up to twenty palas (should be given), increasing (from day to day) for ten days, and reducing it for ten days. Guggulu which destroys ailments and gives nourishment should be given. Good guggulu, mixed with ghee, cooked over a slow fire and in a liquid form should be given duly every day before sunrise when the elephant has just arisen from a good sleep.It is as good as mahīṣākṣi, bhṛṅgapatra and añjanapatra. Mixed with oil, it is good for fattening the emaciated (elephants). It is praised for fat (elephants) in order to make them thinner, (to be taken) pure mixed with urine. In spring it should be given with oil, and wine as its anupāna. It should be given with ghee in śarat with milk as anupāna; in summer, mixed with ghee, with white sugar as anupāna. In autumn and winter it should be given with acrid oil. It is praised in all seasons (as) it clears the bowels.^[46]

The medicine prescribed should be mixed with beneficial guggulu for the appeasement of that ailment and administered to the elephant. To the best category of elephant should be given one hundred and ten palas; three fourth of that to the medium and half to the inferior. Marrow and fat should be given in spring. In autumn and monsoon, drinking of oil is prescribed. In śarat and summer, drinking of ghee is prescribed. In monsoon, the well-nourished elephants should be tended with oil. In autumn and summer, when the fruitful grass dries up, drinking of oil should be avoided.^[47] Consumption of oil in autumn is not prescribed as it does not get digested properly. Similarly consumption of ghee in winter also is not digested properly. Drinking oil in summer causes loss of consciousness. The text further mentions that consumption of oil also causes thirst, tremor and flows in the skin. Therefore oil should be avoided at the onset of cold (weather) and in summer. Bile is placed above the navel, and depends on the heart. Below the navel is the place for wind. The limbs, above the āmāśaya, the chest, the throat and the head–these are placed phlegm in the elephant.^[48] An elephant fed and covered with grass in summer, should be put in the shed at eight and a half nāḍika. Again it should be taken to that place (in the daytime)–this is the prescription in summer. In monsoon, it should be brought in at six nāḍika, of the night. The elephant should be taken to the place again at ten nāḍika. In autumn, it should be taken there after eight nāḍiaka. In the rest of the seasons, śarat, spring and winter, they should be taken at ten nāḍika by the wise.^[49] Most commonly diseases of elephants are caused by worms. But mention is also made of the elephant fever known by the special name of pākala; it is lightly dismissed with the statement that its symptoms and treatment are the same as with human fever. Following the usual Ayurveda theory, diseases are attributed to disturbance of the equilibrium of the three bodily humours, wind, gall and phlegm; the symptoms of disturbance affecting each of the three are severally described, and the next verse gives the characteristics of the healthy elephant whose humours are balanced.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha gajahāropayuktapadārthaguṇapramāṇabidhiḥ), v. 1-4, pp.176-177.

[2]:

Ibid., (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha gajahāropayuktapadārthaguṇapramāṇabidhiḥ), v. 5-6, p.177.

[3]:

Ibid., v. 7-10, pp.177-178.

[4]:

Ibid., (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha gajahāropayuktapadārthaguṇapramāṇabidhiḥ), v. 11-13, p. 178.

[5]:

Ibid., (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha gajahāropayuktapadārthaguṇapramāṇabidhiḥ), v. 14-20, p. 179.

[6]:

Ibid., v. 21.

[7]:

Franklin Edgerton. tr. The Elephant-Lore of the Hindus, Chapter XI, v. 10, p. 87.

[8]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha gajahāropayuktapadārthaguṇapramāṇabidhiḥ), v. 22-23, p. 179.

[9]:

Ibid., v. 24-27, pp. 179-180.

[10]:

Ibid., v. 27-28, p. 180.

[11]:

Ibid., v. 28-32.

[12]:

Vṛṣyā = Āmalakī or vasā (fat) is evocative of sexual vigour.

[13]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha gajahāropayuktapadārthaguṇapramāṇabidhiḥ), v. 33-38, p.181.

[14]:

Ibid., v. 39-53, p.181-183.

[15]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha gajahāropayuktapadārthaguṇapramāṇabidhiḥ), v. 54-63, pp. 183-185. Franklin Edgerton. tr. The Elephant-lore of the Hindus, Chapter XI, v.17, p. 84.

[16]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha gajahāropayuktapadārthaguṇapramāṇabidhiḥ), v. 64-81, pp.185-187.

[17]:

Ibid., (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha bhakṣyapeyādipadārthaguṇadoṣabidhiḥ), v. 1-154, pp.187-207.

[18]:

Ibid., v. 1-4, pp. 187-188.

[19]:

Ibid., (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha bhakṣyapeyādipadārthaguṇadoṣabidhiḥ), v. 5-7, p. 188.

[20]:

Ibid., v. 8-11, pp. 188-189.

[21]:

Ibid., v. 11-15, p. 189.

[22]:

Ibid., v. 16-20, pp. 189-190.

[23]:

Vein on the back of the neck.

[24]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha bhakṣyapeyādipadārthaguṇadoṣabidhiḥ), v. 21-26, pp. 190-191.

[25]:

Ibid., v. 26-30, p. 191.

[26]:

Ibid., v. 31-35, p. 191-192.

[27]:

Ibid., v. 36-40, p. 192.

[28]:

Ibid., v. 41-45, pp. 192-193.

[29]:

Ibid., v. 46-50, pp. 193-194. See also Franklin Edgerton. tr. The Elephant-lore of the Hindus, Chapter XI, v. 44, p.103.

[30]:

Franklin Edgerton. tr. The Elephant-lore of the Hindus, v.20, p.97.

[31]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha bhakṣyapeyādipadārthaguṇadoṣabidhiḥ), v. 51-55, p. 194.

[32]:

Franklin Edgerton. tr. The Elephant-lore of the Hindus, v. 22, p. 97.

[33]:

Ibid., v. 23, pp. 97-98.

[34]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha bhakṣyapeyādipadārthaguṇadoṣabidhiḥ), v. 56-63, pp. 195-196.

[35]:

Ibid., (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha bhakṣyapeyādipadārthaguṇadoṣabidhiḥ), v. 64-69, p. 196.

[36]:

Ibid., v. 69-75, pp. 196-197.

[37]:

Ibid., v. 76-78, p. 197.

[38]:

Ibid., v. 79-85, p. 198.

[39]:

Ibid., v. 86-90, pp. 198-199.

[40]:

., v. 91-95, pp. 199-200.

[41]:

Shri Mantramurti K.S. Subrahmanyaśāstri. ed. &tr. (in Tamil), Gajaśāstra [Gaja-śāstram] of Pālakāpya muni with extracts from other works and Coloured Illustrations, (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha bhakṣyapeyādipadārthaguṇadoṣabidhiḥ), v. 96-105, pp. 200-201.

[42]:

Ibid., v. 106-115, pp. 201-202.

[43]:

Ibid., v. 116-120, pp. 202-203.

[44]:

Ibid., (atha gajaśāstrānubandhaḥ: atha bhakṣyapeyādipadārthaguṇadoṣabidhiḥ), v. 121-126, p. 203.

[45]:

Ibid., v. 127-131, p. 204.

[46]:

Ibid., v. 132-140, pp. 204-205.

[47]:

Ibid., v. 141-145, pp. 205-206.

[48]:

., v. 146-150, p. 206.

[49]:

Ibid., v. 151-154, p. 207.