(b) The Skandhaka

What is the Skandhaka in the Vinaya literature? A simple definition for the (Pāli) term Khandhaka (equivalent to the Sanskrit term Skandhaka), according to the Pali-English Dictionary (s.v. “khandhaka”), is “division, chapter, esp. in the Vinaya”. It is, as mentioned above, one of the two major components of the Vinaya Piṭaka which covers diverse issues of the saṅgha and its members, ranging from the regulations relating to the saṅgha’s meetings/activities to the rules disciplining members’ behaviour and their use of objects. It encompasses many aspects of the community–legal procedures, teacher-student relationships, personal and public health care, social harmonisation, religious ceremonies, communal dwellings, circumstantial etiquette, and so on (Dhammavihāri 2009, 642; Nietupski 2005, 1259-1260). In the extant Vinaya Piṭakas, this component is not just called Khandhaka/Skandhaka (Chinese: jiandu 揵度) as in the Theravāda and the Dharmaguptaka Vinayas. The Sarvāstivāda and the Mahīśāsaka Vinayas utilise the term Dharma (Dharmaka) (Chinese: fa 法). The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya uses the term Vastu (Chinese: shi 事). The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya applies the term Varga (Chinese: baqü 跋渠) to cover the equivalent sections. For the convenience of discussion, as explained in the footnote 18 of Chapter One, the term Skandhaka/Khandhaka will be employed to denote this part of the Vinaya Piṭaka.

With regard to the compilation of the Skandhaka, studies have been wanting in this area. There are so far three hypotheses about the origin and formation of the Skandhaka text, but there is no conclusion yet. The first is that posited by Frauwallner (1956, 42-67). According to him, there was an “old Skandhaka text” from which the Vinayas were derived. Such a text was “consciously created in accordance with an imposing plan,” by “some outstanding specialist of the Vinaya” in the fourth century Before Common Era (Frauwallner, 1956, 53, 65). Another hypothesis is that of Hirakawa (1960, 5-57, 591-669): the extant Vinaya Piṭakas (including the Skandhakas) should have come from an “original Vinaya Piṭaka” (原始律藏) (which is still unknown), which was gradually developed after the demise of the Buddha (as was the rest of the Buddhist canon). The third hypothesis is proposed by Yinshun (2002, 251-394). His hypothesis is that the Skandhakas of various (Sthavira) sects were developed, over a long period of time in several stages since the demise of the Buddha, from a precursor text–the Mātṛkā (Chinese: Modeleqie 摩得勒伽)^[1] –which was formed separately by itemising and grouping those newly collected rules (after the First Council) that were different in nature from the Prātimokṣa rules.^[2] Of these three hypotheses on the origin and formation of the Skandhaka text, none is yet being widely accepted by scholars as the probable conclusion.

Various types of data relating to the saṅgha and its members are found in the Skandhaka, as briefly mentioned above. It comprises monastic activities and rituals such as the ordination, rains retreat, daily activities and so on; it also deals with the things allowed for the members of the saṅgha to possess or use, such as clothing, medicines, shoes, leather objects, and so forth. A partial biography of the Buddha and the accounts of the two Councils are included in the Skandhaka.^[3] With the exception of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya, the extant versions of the Skandhaka have their contents grouped into some seventeen to twenty-two sections (which are termed khandhaka/skandhaka, vastu or dharma(ka), as mentioned). The “Skandhaka” section of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya, unlike the Stharvira Vinayas, does not put the items systematically into various topic sections, but into vargas which are less organised (though rough grouping of related items can be observed in this version). Differences in the number of sections in the Stharvira Vinayas are due to different organisation (combining or separating) of the contents (which are shown below). Each of these sections is, as Ṭhānissaro (2007, 1) describes, “loosely organized around a major topic, with minor topics inserted in a fairly haphazard fashion.”

The topics are grouped into various sections of the Skandhaka. Different versions of the Skandhaka have their lists of such topic sections. Great similarity of the covered topics and their contents are found amongst the Skandhakas (Yinshun 2002, 251). Differences are chiefly found in the arrangement of the topics and elaboration of the data (Frauwallner 1956, 4). The lists of topic sections of the extant Skandhaka will be given one by one in the following (except the Mahāsāṃghika Varga which does not have a list of well organised topic sections):^[4]

The Theravāda Khandhaka is divided into the Mahāvagga with ten sections (i-x of the following list) and the Cullavagga containing twelve sections (xi-xxii):^[5]

1. ordination of monks (Mahā-khandhaka),
2. bimonthly recitation of the Pāṭimokkha and confession ceremony (Uposatha-khandhaka),
3. annual rains retreat (Vassupanāyika-khandhaka),
4. invitation ceremony at the end of the rains retreat (Pavāraṇa-khandhaka),
5. footwear and leather objects (Camma-khandhaka),
6. medicines and food (Bhesajja-khandhaka),
7. robe-cloth at the end of rains retreat (Kaṭhina-khandhaka),
8. clothing (Cīvara-khandhaka),
9. validity or not of transactions in the monastic community (Campeyya-khandhaka),
10. disputes and division management in the monastic community (Kosambakhandhaka),
11. punishments (Kamma-khandhaka),
12. conduct and activity for a monk who is put on probation (parivāsa) and penance (mānatta) (Pārivāsika-khandhaka),
13. imposition of probation and penance (Samuccaya-khandhaka),
14. settling disputes (Samatha-khandhaka),
15. miscellaneous matters (such as objects permissible or not for monks, rules relating to their use, etc.) (Khuddhakavatthu-khandhaka),
16. lodging and bedding (Senāsana-khandhaka),
17. schism in the community (Saṃghabheda-khandhaka),
18. behaviours of monks in various circumstances (Vatta-khandhaka),
19. exclusion of a monk, who has committed an offence, from the uposatha ceremony (Pāṭimokkhaṭhapana-khandhaka),
20. rules required of nuns (Bhikkhunī-khandhaka),
21. the First Council (Pañcasatika-khandhaka),
22. the Second Council (Sattasatika-khandhaka).

The Dharmaguptaka Skandhaka also has twenty-two topic sections, but in a slightly different order:

1. Shoujie jiandu 受戒揵度 (corresponding to the Mahā-khandhaka of the Theravāda version or the Pravrajyā-vastu of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya),
2. Shuojie jiandu 說戒揵度 (corresponding to the Uposatha-khandhaka or Poṣadha-vastu),
3. Anjü jiandu 安居揵度 (corresponding to the Vassupanāyika-khandhaka or Varṣā-vastu),
4. Zizi jiandu 自恣揵度 (corresponding to the Pavāraṇa-khandhaka or Pravāraṇā-vastu),
5. Pige jiandu 皮革揵度 (corresponding to the Camma-khandhaka or Carma-vastu),
6. Yi jiandu 衣揵度 (corresponding to the Cīvara-khandhaka/-vastu),
7. Yao jiandu 藥揵度 (corresponding to the Bhesajjya-khandhaka or Bhaiṣajya-vastu),
8. Jiachinayi jiandu 迦絺那衣揵度 (corresponding to the Kaṭhina-khandhaka/-vastu),
9. Jüshanmi jiandu 拘睒彌揵度 (corresponding to the Kosamba-khandhaka or Kauśāmbī-vastu),
10. Zhanbo jiandu 瞻波揵度 (corresponding to the Campeyya-khandhaka),
11. Heze jiandu 呵責揵度 (corresponding to the Kamma-khandhaka or Pāṇḍulohita-vastu),
12. Ren jiandu 人揵度 (corresponding to the Samuccaya-khandhaka or Pudgala-vastu),
13. Fucang jiandu 覆藏揵度 (corresponding to the Pārivāsika-khandhaka or Pārivāsika-vastu),
14. Zhe jiandu 遮揵度 (corresponding to the Pāṭimokkhaṭhapana-khandhaka or Poṣadha-ṭhāpana-vastu),
15. Poseng jiandu 破 僧 揵 度 (corresponding to the Saṃghabheda-khandhaka/-vastu),
16. Miezheng jiandu 滅諍揵度 (corresponding to the Samatha-khandhaka or Adhikaraṇa-vastu),
17. Biqiuni jiandu 比丘尼揵度 (corresponding to the Bhikkhunī-khandhaka),
18. Fa jiandu 法揵度 (corresponding to the Vatta-khandhaka),
19. Fangshe jiandu 房舍揵度 (corresponding to the Senāsana-khandhaka or Śayanāsana-vastu),
20. Za jiandu 雜揵度 (corresponding to the Khuddhakavatthu-khandhaka or Kṣudraka-vastu),
21. Jifa pini wubai ren 集法毘尼五百人 (corresponding to the Pañcasatikakhandhaka),
22. Qibai jifa pini 七百集法毘尼 (corresponding to the Sattasatika-khandhaka).

The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya has twenty-one sections in the Skandhaka part as follows:

1. Shoujie fa 受戒法 (corresponding to the Mahā-khandhaka or Pravrajyā-vastu),
2. Busa fa 布薩法 (corresponding to the Uposatha-khandhaka or Poṣadha-vastu),
3. Anjü fa 安居法 (corresponding to the Vassupanāyika-khandhaka or Varṣā-vastu),
4. Zizi fa 自恣法 (corresponding to the Pavāraṇa-khandhaka or Pravāraṇā-vastu),
5. Yi fa 衣法 (corresponding to the Cīvara-khandhaka/-vastu),
6. Pige fa 皮革法 (corresponding to the Camma-khandhaka or Carma-vastu),
7. Yao fa 藥法 (corresponding to the Bhesajjya-khandhaka or Bhaiṣajya-vastu),^[6]
8. Shi fa 食法 (corresponding to the Bhesajjya-khandhaka or Bhaiṣajya-vastu),^[7]
9. Jiachinayi fa 迦絺那衣法 (corresponding to the Kaṭhina-khandhaka/-vastu),
10. Miezheng fa 滅諍法 (corresponding to the Samatha-khandhaka or Adhikaraṇa-vastu),
11. Jiemo fa 羯 磨 法 (corresponding to the Kamma-khandhaka or Pāṇḍulohita-vastu),^[8]
12. Poseng fa 破僧法 (corresponding to the Saṃghabheda-khandhaka/-vastu),
13. Wojü fa 臥 具 法 (corresponding to the Senāsana-khandhaka or Śayanāsana-vastu),
14. Za fa 雜法 (corresponding to the Khuddhakavatthu-khandhaka or Kṣudraka-vastu),
15. Siddhisthāna weiyi fa 四威儀法 (corresponding to the Vatta-khandhaka),
16. Zhe busa fa 遮布薩法 (corresponding to the Pāṭimokkhaṭhapana-khandhaka or Poṣadha-ṭhāpana-vastu),
17. Biezhu fa 別住法 (corresponding to the Pārivāsika-khandhaka or Pārivāsika-vastu),
18. Diaofu fa 調伏法,^[9]
19. Biqiuni fa 比丘尼法 (corresponding to the Bhikkhunī-khandhaka),
20. Wubaiji fa 五百集法 (corresponding to the Pañcasatika-khandhaka),
21. Qibaiji fa 七百集法 (corresponding to the Sattasatika-khandhaka).

The Sarvāstivāda version has seventeen sections:^[10]

1. Shoujüzujie fa 受具足戒法 (corresponding to the Mahā-khandhaka or Pravrajyā-vastu),
2. Busa fa 布薩法 (corresponding to the Uposatha-khandhaka or Poṣadha-vastu),
3. Zizi fa 自恣法 (corresponding to the Pavāraṇa-khandhaka or Pravāraṇā-vastu),
4. Anjü fa 安居法 (corresponding to the Vassupanāyika-khandhaka or Varṣā-vastu),
5. Pige fa 皮革法 (corresponding to the Camma-khandhaka or Carma-vastu),
6. Yiyao fa 醫 藥 法 (corresponding to the Bhesajjya-khandhaka or Bhaiṣajya-vastu),
7. Yi fa 衣法 (corresponding to the Cīvara-khandhaka/-vastu),
8. Jiachinayi fa 迦絺那衣法 (corresponding to the Kaṭhina-khandhaka/-vastu),
9. Jüshemi fa 俱舍彌法 (corresponding to the Kosamba-khandhaka or Kauśāmbī-vastu),
10. Zhanbo fa 瞻波法 (corresponding to the Campeyya-khandhaka),
11. Banchaluqie fa 般茶盧伽法 (corresponding to the Kamma-khandhaka or Pāṇḍulohita-vastu),
12. Hui fa 悔法,^[11] xiii. Zhe fa 遮法 (corresponding to the Pāṭimokkhaṭhapana-khandhaka or Poṣadha-ṭhāpana-vastu),
13. Wojü fa 臥 具 法 (corresponding to the Senāsana-khandhaka or Śayanāsana-vastu),
14. Zhengshi fa 諍事法 (corresponding to the Samatha-khandhaka or Adhikaraṇa-vastu),
15. Diaota shi 調達事 (corresponding to the Saṃghabheda-khandhaka/-vastu),
16. Za fa 雜法.^[12]

The Mūlasarvāstivada Vinayavastu has the following seventeen sections (based on the Tibetan recension):^[13]

1. Pravrajyā-vastu (Rab tu’byung ba’i gzhi),
2. Poṣadha-vastu (gSo sbyong gzhi),
3. Pravāraṇa-vastu (dGag dbye’i gzhi),
4. Varṣā-vastu (dByar gyi gzhi),
5. Carma-vastu (Ko lpags kyi gzhi),
6. Bhaiṣajya-vastu (sMan gyi gzhi),
7. Cīvara-vatu (Gos kyi gzhi),
8. Kaṭhina-vastu (Sra brkyang gi gzhi),
9. Kośambī-vastu (Ko sham bi’i gzhi),
10. Karma-vastu (Las kyi gzhi),
11. Pāṇḍulohitaka-vastu (dMar ser can gyi gzhi),
12. Pudgala-vastu (Gang zag gi gzhi),
13. Pārivāsika-vastu (sPo ba’i gzhi),
14. Poṣadhathāpana-vastu (gSo sbyong gshag pa’i gzhi),
15. Śayanāsana-vastu (gNas lam gyi gzhi),
16. Adhikaraṇa-vastu (rTsod pa’i gzhi),
17. Saṃghabheda-vastu (dGe dun dbyen pa’i gzhi).^[14]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

According to Yinshun (2002, 251 ff.), from this Mātṛkā, different Sthavira schools further developed this text which became their own Skandhakas. The Mahāsāmghika school did not progress further and hence the Varga section remains as the Mātṛkā form.

[2]:

The detailed arguments of each of these three hypotheses cannot be covered here. It is beyond this preliminary overview section to describe and discuss them in detail. For such arguments, see the respective references as cited.

[3]:

According to Lamotte (1988, 178), the Sarvāstivāda and Mahāsāṃghika versions of the Skandhaka section do not possess the initial biography of the Buddha.

[4]:

A table listing all the topics in the Sthavira Skandhaka texts can be found in Hirakawa’s book (1960, 631).

[5]:

For the outline of each topic section in the Theravāda Khandhaka, see Hirakawa 1960, 595-604; Witanachchi 2009b, 653-656.

[6]:

This part relates to medicines.

[7]:

This part relates to food.

[8]:

Apart from corresponding to the Heze jiandu/Kamma-khandhaka/Pāṇḍulohita-vastu, this section includes also the equivalent content found in the Zhanbo jiandu/Campeyya-khandhaka, the Jüshanmi jiandu/Kosamba-khandhaka/Kauśāmbī-vastu, and the Ren jiandu/Samuccayakhandhaka/Pudgala-vastu (Hirakawa 1960, 614).

[9]:

Literally the term means “the means to subdue.” According to Hirakawa (1960, 615), this section is unique to the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya. Equivalent contents of it can be found in the Appendices of other Vinayas, such as those of the Dharmaguptaka and the Sarvāstivāda Vinayas.

[10]:

The records of the First Council and the Second Council are not set as separate sections in the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya. They are found in one of the appendices (the Kuśalādhyāya) in the Chinese recension (Yinshun 2002, 315).

[11]:

Hirakawa (1960, 618-619) states that this section includes two topic sections of other Vinayas: the

Ren jiandu/Samuccaya-khandhaka/Pudgala-vastu and the Fucang jiandu/Pārivāsika-khandhaka/ Pārivāsika-vastu.

[12]:

This section corresponds not only to the Khuddhakavatthu-khandhaka/Kṣudraka-vastu, but also to the Vatta-khandhaka, and part of the Bhikkhunī-khandhaka (Hirakawa 1960, 620).

[13]:

The Sanskrit and Tibetan names of these sections are adapted from Banerjee (1957, 83 ff.) and Prebish (1994, 93 ff.)

[14]:

The Vinayakṣudrakavastu is a huge text in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. In the Chinese translation, it (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1451) has forty fascicles. This text includes the contents of the (Pāli) Vatta-khandhaka, the Khuddhaka-khandhaka, the Bhikkhunī-khandhaka, and the two records of the First and Second Councils (Hirakawa 1960, 625-626).