6. Sammādiṭṭhi and Language Comprehension

As a factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, wisdom is known as right view. In the Nikāyas, the Majjhima Nikāya is considered the Collection that focuses mainly on the sammādiṭṭhi ‘right view’ and the path to practice the mind. Hence, the subject of sammādiṭṭhi appears all over in this text; for example, in Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 9, 43, 60, 114, 117; 141, and so on, and particularly in the Sammādiṭṭhi Sutta ‘A Discourse on Right View’ (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 9), one of the most important Suttas which gives an excellent overview of the ‘soil of wisdom’.

The Venerable Sāriputta, who excelled in wisdom, spoke the discourse (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 9) to a group of his fellow monks. The right view, according to the classical commentary on this Sutta, is twofold: conceptual right view, and experiential right view. The former is a clear intellectual grasp of the Dhamma; the latter is the wisdom that directly penetrates the Dhamma. As Bhikkhu Bodhi carries out in his (2005) that “conceptual right view, called ‘right view in conformity with the truths’ (saccānulomika-sammādiṭṭhi) , is a correct understanding of the Dhamma arrived at by studying and examining the Buddha’s teachings in depth. Such understanding, though conceptual rather than experiential, is by no means dry and sterile. When rooted in faith in the Buddha’s enlightenment and driven by a strong determination to realize the truth of the Dhamma, it serves as the germ from which experiential right view evolves and thus becomes a critical step in the growth of wisdom. Experiential right view is the realization of the truth of the Dhamma in one’s own immediate experience. For this reason it is called ‘right view that penetrates the truths’ (saccapaṭivedha-sammādiṭṭhi). To arrive at direct penetration, one begins with correct conceptual understanding of the teaching and, by practice, transforms this understanding into direct perception. If conceptual right view is compared to a hand -a hand that grasps the truth with the aid of concepts -then experiential right view might be compared to an eye. It is the eye of wisdom, the vision of the Dhamma, that sees directly into the ultimate truth, hidden from us for so long by our greed, hatred, and delusion” (Bhikkhu Bodhi 2005: 304).

Sāriputta expounds these principles under sixteen headings: the wholesome and the unwholesome, the four nutriments of life, the Four Noble Truths, the twelve factors of dependent origination, and the taints. It should be noted that whatever phenomenon he takes up, he expounds by bringing to light its individual nature, its arising, its cessation, and the way to its cessation. Since this is the pattern that underlies the Four Noble Truths.

The world-transcending right view, arrived at by penetrating any of the sixteen subjects expounded in the Sutta, occurs in two main stages. The first stage is the right view of the trainee (sekha) , the disciple who has entered irreversibly upon the path to liberation but has not yet reached its end. This stage is indicated by the words that open each section, “[one] who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma” (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 9). These words signify right view as a vision of true principles, an insight that has initiated a radical transformation in the disciple but has not yet reached completion. The second stage is the world-transcending right view of the Arahant, described by the closing words of each section. These words indicate that the disciple has used right view to eradicate the remaining defilements and has attained complete emancipation.

While Bhikkhu Bodhi brings out twofold; that is, ‘conceptual right view’ and ‘experiential right view’, and they have causality together: conceptual right view is the cause and experiential right view is the effect or the doctrine is the cause and the path is the effect, according to The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha (n. 1100) on the Mahācattārīsaka Sutta, there are two kinds of right view known as (i) forerunners that are the right view of insight, which investigates principal teachings such as aniccatā (impermanence), dukkhatā (suffering), and anattā (non-self), and so on; and (ii) the right view of the path, which arises as a consequence of insight and effects the radical destruction of defilements.

The teaching of the Buddha is ‘coming-to-know’, ‘coming-to-be’. The Noble Eightfold Path is to follow and practice, not only to grasp. The path itself is a means to convey the teachings of the Buddha to the life by decoding clearly the abstract and profound doctrines into an exposition of truth and offering an exit from the problem of suffering with which the doctrine starts. It hence claims to be primacy. However, in order to apply the path effectively one must correctly understand it and in effect, right understanding of the path that itself is a part of the practice. It is like to open a door, for instance, one first has to correctly identify the proper key among others’ and then put it into the lock. By this way he hopes to be able to open the door. Right recognition of the key also means he has put one of his feet into the house of deliverance. The correct identity of the key is similar to right understanding of the path and opening the door is similar to the practice of that path. The right view of insight, in brief, is the precursor of the right view of path, supramundane right view. Bhikkhu Bodhi is correct when giving a vivid simile of these twofold of right view: if conceptual right view can be compare to a hand that grasps the truth through concepts, then experiential right view can be compared to an eye–eye of wisdom–that sees directly into the true nature of existence often hidden from us by interference of our craving, ill will and delusion. Thus, the basic content of the Sammādiṭṭhi Sutta “A Discourse on Right View’ is comprehended by conceptual right view and penetrated by experiential right view. The conceptual comprehension of the Four Noble Truths falls into mundane right view, while the direct penetration of the truth by realizing nibbāna by the path constitutes supramundane right view.

The distinction between mundane right view (lokiya sammādiṭṭhi) and supramundane right view (lokuttara sammādiṭṭhi) is exposed plainly in the Mahācattārīsaka Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 117). The former is said to operate within the confines of the world which are affected by taints, partake of merit, ripen on the side of attachment. “Mundane right view is again twofold: the view that kamma produces its fruits, which may be held both by Buddhists and outsiders, and the view that accords with the Four Noble Truths, which is exclusive to the Buddha’s Dispensation” (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 114). Mundane right view is in generally “a meritorious factor that conduces to a favorable rebirth but cannot by itself issue in a transcendence of conditioned existence” (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 1102). The latter, on the other hand, is the superior right view which is noble, taintless, supramundane, a factor of the path leading to liberation from the world. The Mahācattārīsaka Sutta defines this type of right view “as the wisdom found among the requisites of enlightenment as a faculty, power, enlightenment factor, and path factor. The definition is formulated by way of the cognitive function rather than the objective content of the view” (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 1103). In someplace, for example, in the Saccavibhanga Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 141.24) defines the right view of the path as knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, and in the Sammādiṭṭhi Sutta as the understanding of the Four Noble Truths attained by penetrating to the four paths and fruits of sanctity (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 114).

The Majjhima Commentary looks supramundane right view in terms of two aspects. The first is the initial penetration of the supramundane path that converts an ordinary person (puthujjana) into a noble disciple who has entered upon the stream to liberation; that is, a stream-enterer. Such a noble disciple is implied as ‘one of right view’ with ‘perfect confidence in the Dhamma’ and ‘arrived at this true Dhamma’ (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 9.2). These are attributes of only the stream-enterer and those of higher attainment along the path, generally the noble disciple has entered the path but has not yet reached its ultimate end. Thus, it is obviously that right view as a particular faculty of wisdom which enables to reveal the ultimate truths underlying the existence of human beings and this faculty has to be continuously developed until the final goal of liberation is complete. The path of such disciples in higher training, as described in Majjhima Nikāya (Sutta number 117.34), fully possesses eight factors in the Noble Eightfold Path. The second aspect of supramundane right view is completely applicable to the Arahant only. For the liberated one, “he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust, he abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit ‘I am’, and by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he here and now makes an end of suffering” (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 9). The Arahant possesses ten factors including eight factors as to the disciples in higher training and two more factors; that is, ‘right knowledge’ and ‘right deliverance’. Right knowledge can be identified with his reviewing knowledge that he has used to destroy all the defilements and right deliverance can be identified with his experience of liberation for eradicating all those defilements.

In sum, there are three kinds of person who possess right view: the wise person; the disciple in higher training (sekha); and the one beyond training (asekha) -the Arahant. Mundane right view possessed by wise persons includes both kinds of Buddhists and outsiders. The disciple in both the higher training and the Arahant possess supramundane right view. The disciple in higher training possesses the first aspect of supramundane right view while the Arahant possesses the second one. Thus, right view firstly is conceptually comprehended by the wise person, and secondly is transformed into direct insight by the attainment of the disciple in higher training and lastly is reached its final fulfillment in the ultimate goal of complete liberation from suffering by the Arahant. Right view can thus be said to form both the beginning and the culmination of the way to the end of suffering.

In the Mahāvedalla Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 43.13) the Venerable Sāriputta brought out two conditions for the arising of right view; those are ‘the voice of another’ (paratoghosa), and ‘wise attention’ (yonisomanasikāra). These two conditions are necessary for disciples to arrive at the right view of insight, and the right view of supramundane path. The ‘voice of another’ means another’s utterance or teaching of beneficial Dhamma. The ‘wise attention’ is analytical thinking on a contemplative subject of Dhamma. Both factors, in fact, are of the language comprehension process although these two derived from the different sides: the former is from outside and the later comes from inside.

The language comprehension, as we have seen, is a complex and dynamic active process that inquires into intellectual capacity and comprehension level of the hearer when he listens to speech and understands it, when he stores it, and when he remembers it. Generally, it is the measure of his capacity in capturing the meaning from other’s utterance. The acquisition of paratoghosa, for instance, requires the whole process of language comprehension. First prerequisite is attention; that is, he at first must pay his attention and concentrate on the teaching when he is listening to other, and then he has to take the input of that teaching to analyze its meaning, as well as put up the most likely understanding for the teaching processed. Thus, in order to decode and comprehend the other’s teaching, one has to engage with various mental processes and with complexity of mind, and in such a process the five stages corresponding with the five linguistic levels are fully applied.

In two paratoghosa and yonisomanasikāra factors, the Buddha often emphasizes on the later because it expresses self-education and knowledge of analysis and high philosophical thinking. Actually, the process of paratoshosa also goes through yonisomanasikāra though it has to pass other media. And yonisomanasikāra is actually just a variant of other kind of speech comprehension which is called as ‘Speech Inner’, a particular variant of the use of language which is outside the process of actual communication.^[1] Thus, both factors are important alike. However, the former is more common to everyone because it does not require the high analytic intellect which is not possessed by many people. With the approach of paratoghosa, one needs suggestions, guides, and encouragement from other. When he has comprehended the meaning of the teaching, with the encouragement and guide of the master or spiritual friend (kalyānṇamitta), he applies that teaching to his contemplative practice and by that way, he possesses right view. Whereas in the approach of yonisomanasikāra the practitioner although with the high intellect at hand which enables him to apply the teaching to his training, he may still need the proper guidance of others as a compass for designing his first steps towards the supramundane path. This initial support and encouragement would help him to make increasingly speedy progress in the course of his training.

Apart from the two factors above, right view is also assisted by other five factors that are virtue, learning, discussion, serenity and insight (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 43.14). The first factor can be seen to purify the three actions: body, verbal, and mental. The next two factors require both the process of language comprehension and language production. The last two factors are to train mind.

Learning (suta), the second factor, means to learn the Buddha’s profound teaching which acquires the learner to try to listen and to read persistently. This process requires a high level of language comprehension, because one first has to comprehend fully the meaning of the teaching, then he can have the capacity of correct understanding to apply rightly that teaching to the practice. The factor of discussion, on the other hand, requires not only the capacity of right understanding but also capacity of analytic skill. The discussion on the Buddhist doctrines is not for debating metaphysical problems but for the purpose of clarifying the doctrines in the harmony, and of course without hatred and malicious intent. In such a language production, the ambiguous sentences and the speech errors that cause troubles for the hearers must be excluded. For such virtuous requirements, the Buddhist learning and discussion have to go after the factor of virtue. But mere learning and well analytical discussion are not sufficient. Knowledge only fulfills its proper purpose when it serves as a launch pad for wisdom, direct personal insight into the truth of the Dhamma. Such wisdom must be generated from the methodical mental training in serenity and insight. Therefore, the serenity (samathā) and the insight (vipassanā), two wings of Buddhist meditation, must come immediately after factors of learning and discussion. In general, the above five factors are related closely to each other. By virtue, one can comprehend rapidly and understand correctly the Dhamma; through this, he makes his analytic ability become sharply and giftedly. His knowledge increases in favour of working scientifically the teaching and doctrines learnt through study into the framework of the mind, which involves deep reflection, intelligent dialogue, and keen investigation.

In short, the above five factors are format of an advanced Buddhist education which aims at a parallel revolution of human personality and intelligence, holding both in equilibrium and ensuring that both are brought to the fulfillment. When one fulfils these five factors, the path of Arahantship arises and yields its fruit.

As having been mentioned above, the Venerable Sāriputta expands right view on sixteen headings within which the Four Noble Truths recur throughout the Nikāyas as one of the major templates through which phenomena are to be viewed to arrive at true wisdom. Its application makes it clear that no entity is isolated and self-enclosed but is, rather, inherently linked to other things in a complex web of dependently originated processes.

The key to liberation lies in understanding the causes that sustain this web and bringing them to an end within oneself. This is done by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, the way to extinguish those causes.

Let us consider the following Sutta from the ‘Discourse on Right View’ dealing with the Four Noble Truths:

Saying, “Good, friend,” the monks delighted and rejoiced in the Venerable Sariputta’s words. Then they asked him a further question: “But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?”–“There might be, friends.

“When, friends, a noble disciple understands suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation of suffering, in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.

“And what is suffering, what is the origin of suffering, what is the cessation of suffering, what is the way leading to the cessation of suffering? Birth is suffering; aging is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair are suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering. This is called suffering.

“And what is the origin of suffering? It is this craving that leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination. This is called the origin of suffering.

“And what is the cessation of suffering? It is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, nonattachment.

“And what is the way leading to the cessation of suffering? It is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right concentration. This is called the way leading to the cessation of suffering.

“When a noble disciple has thus understood suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation of suffering... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.

(Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 9.13-9)

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Psychologists distinguish three basic types of speech inner. The first one is inner articulation, or ‘speech to oneself’, which retains the structure of external speech but is devoid of phonation, i.e., articulation of sounds, and typical of solving mental problems in difficult situations. The second is speech inner proper, when it is a means of thinking; it makes use of specific units (a code of images and schemes, an object code, object meanings) and has a specific structure, distinct from that of external speech. And the last one is inner programming, i.e., the act of forming and securing in specific units a project (type, programme) of speech utterance, a whole text, and its contextual parts. (See Petrovsky and Yaroshevsky (ed.), A concise Psychological Dictionary, 299-300).