Chapter 4 - Astronomy, the Indian calendar, etc.

Although the revolution of the Yin and Yang principles and the successive mansions of the sun and moon be called by names different from ours, yet the seasons are the same; the names of the months are derived from the position (of the moon in respect) of the asterisms.

The shortest portion of time is called a t'sa-na (kṣaṇa); 120 kṣaṇas make a ta-t'sa-na (takṣaṇa); 60 of these make a la-fo (lava); 30 of these make a mau-hu-li-to (muhūrta); five of these make "a period of time" (kāla); six of these make a day and night (ahorātra),^[1] but commonly the day and night are divided into eight kalās.^[2]

The period from the new moon till full moon is called the white division (śukla-pakṣa) of the month; the period from the full moon till the disappearance (of the light) is called the dark portion (Kṛīṣṇa-pakṣa). The dark portion comprises fourteen or fifteen days, because the month is sometimes long and sometimes short. The preceding dark portion and the following light portion together form a month; six months form a "march" (hing, s. ayaṇa). The sun when it moves within (the equator) is said to be on its northward march;^[3] when it moves without (the equator) it is on its southern march.^[4] These two periods form a year (vatsara).

The year, again, is divided into six seasons. From the 16th day of the 1st month till the 15th day of the 3d month is the season of gradual heat; from the 16th day of the 3d month till the 15th day of the 5th month is called the season of full heat; from the 16th day of the 5th month till the 15th day of the 7th month is called the rainy season; from the 16th day of the 7th month till the 15th day of the 9th month is called the season of growth (vegetation); from the 16th day of the 9th month to the 15th day of the 11th month is called the season of gradual cold; from the 16th day of the 11th month to the 15th day of the 1st month is called the season of great (full) cold.^[5]

According to the holy doctrine of Tathāgata, the year is divided into three seasons. From the 16th day of the 1st month till the 15th day of the 5th month is called the hot season; from the 16th day of the 5th month till the 15th day of the 9th month is called the wet season; from the 16th day of the 9th month to the 15th day of the 1st month is called the cold season. Again, there are four seasons, called spring, summer, autumn, winter. The three spring months are called Chi-ta-lo (Chaītra) month, Fei-she-kie (Vaiśāka) month, She-se-ch'a (Jyeṣṭha); these correspond with the time from the 16th day of the 1st month to the 15th of the 4th month. The three summer months are called An-sha-cha (āṣāḍha) month, Chi-lo-fa-na (śrāvaṇa) month, Po-ta-lo-pa-to (Bhādrapada) month; these correspond to the time between the 16th day of the 4th month to the 15th day of the 7th month. The three autumn months are called, An-shi-fo-ku^[6] -che (āśvayuja) month, Kia-li-ta-ka (Kārttika) month, Wi-^[7] kia-chi-lo (Mārgaśīrṣa) month; these correspond to the time between the 16th day of the 7th month to the 15th day of the 10th month. The three months of winter are called P'o-sha (Puṣya) month, Ma-ku (Māgha) month, and P'o-li-kiu-na (Phālguna) month; these correspond with the time between the 16th day of the 10th month to the 15th day of the 1st month in China. In old times in India the priestly fraternity, relying on the holy teaching of Buddha, had a double^[8] resting-time (during the rains), viz., either the former three months or the latter three months; these periods were either from the 16th day of the 5th month to the 15th day of the 8th month, or from the 16th day of the 6th month to the 15th day of the 9th month.

Translators of the Sūtras (king) and the Vinaya (liu) belonging to former generations employed the terms Tso-hia and Tso-la-hia^[9] to signify the rest during the rainy season; but this was because the ignorant (common) people of the frontier countries did not understand the right sounds of the language of the middle country (India), or that they translated before they comprehended the local phrases: this was the cause of error. And for the same reason occur the mistakes about the time of Tathāgata's conception, birth, departure from his home, enlightenment, and Nirvāṇa, which we shall notice in the subsequent records.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Three in the day, three in the night.—Ch. Ed.

[2]:

Four for the day and four for the night; each of these kalās is again divided into four parts or periods (she).—Ch. Ed.

[3]:

Uttarāyaṇa.

[4]:

Dakshiṇāyaṇa.

[5]:

These six seasons (ṛtavas) are respectively (1) Vasanta, including the months of Chaitra and Vaiśākha; (2) Grīshma—Jyeshṭha and āshādha; (3) Varshās—śrāvaṇa and Bhādrapada; (4) śaradā—āśvina and Kārttika; (5) Hemanta—Mārgaśīrsha and Pushya; and (6) śiśira—Māgha and Phālguna. In the south they are reckoned as beginning a month later.

[6]:

The symbol "ku" is for "yu".—Julien in loc.

[7]:

The symbol wi is for mo.—Jul.

[8]:

I have preferred not to alter the text, and so translate the passage literally. The "double period" of rest during the rainy season was an early ordinance, found in the Vinaya. It was so arranged that those who were prevented from arriving at the appointed time might begin their "rest" a month later. If, however, we suppose the symbol "liang" to be a mistake for "yu", then the passage will run thus: "The priestly fraternity retired into fixed dwellings during the rainy season." See Burnouf, Introd., p. 254.

[9]:

I cannot but think that "hia" and "la" in these phrases are intended to be phonetic equivalents for Varsha, and that the author is pointing out the error of those who adopted such inadequate sounds. M. Julien's explanation, however, may be the correct one (vid. Julien in loc., n. 1).