The Concept of Bhoga (money)

Although we find the terms dhana, attha and addha used for money but the most frequently used term for money in the texts is bhoga. The Pali dictionary derives its meaning from the root bhunj to make use of, take advantage of, and to eat.^[1] The term bhoga, when mentioned in conjunction with kamabhoga, means enjoyment of sensual pleasure.^[2] The connotation of bhoga to eat or consume is also present in the usage of the term where it is used as synonym for cash; like pleasures of senses, money is to be consumed.

The term dhana is occasionally associated with bhoga, although there is a distinction made between the two terms. It is said to Migara Rohaneyya in the Anguttara Nikaya that he is rich (addho), of great dhana, and great bhoga (mahadhano, mahabhogo). Of gold there is a hundred thousand (satam satasahassanam); of silver who can tell. But that dhana is subject to the hazards of fire, water, kings, robbers and ill disposed heirs.^[3] Even the great robber is mentioned as rich (addho) with great dhana and bhoga.^[4] The anointed khattiya raja is described as rich with great dhana and possessing treasuries and granaries which overflow (paripunna-kosakotthagar).^[5] In former times brahmanas accumulated (sannidhim) neither dhana, grain, silver nor gold.^[6] The term dhana in the above cases connotes accumulated wealth or property which has to be conserved. The term bhoga, as stated above, and as can be adduced from the instances which will be discussed below, refers to the concept of money, cash or liquid assets.

Concerning the general attributes of money (bhoga), it is remarked that is the power of luck which draws money (bhoga) to itself.^[7] Money (bhoga) is listed among ten things desirable, much esteemed and delightful but hard to secure in this world (ittha kanta manapa dullabha lokasamim). The other nine things being beauty, health, virtues, the life of continence, friend, truths, understanding, dhamma and heaven.^[8] Sloth and non-exertion are impediments to acquiring money (alassam anutthanam bhoganam paripatho), whereas energetic strivings are inductive to its acquisitions.^[9] Woman is utterly without charm, if she lacks beauty, money (bhoga) morality, diligence and the ability to bear children.^[10] Possessed of five powers (balani), women dwell at home in confidence: the power of beauty, the power of money (bhoga), kin group, sons and the power of virtue.^[11]

The pursuit of money, lawfully acquired, is a legitimate goal for people. In his advise to the famous gahapati Anathpindika the Buddha States that there are four cherished but difficult conditions to secure in this world. “What four? Let money (bhoga) by lawful means come to me. Obtaining possession of money [in this manner] (bhoga laddha), let good report attend me along with my kinfolks and teachers. Money in my possession, may I live longer and reach advanced age. Money in my possession, when I die may I attain heaven.”^[12] Money in my possession, may I live longer and reach advanced age. Money brings happiness. There are two kinds of happiness. One is the happiness due to money (bhoga sukham) which is obtained by enjoying one’s money lawfully acquired (dhammaladdhedi bhoge), and with it doing meritorious deeds. This type of consumption of money (bhoga) is the best of its kind. For one has the happiness of real ownership of money (atthi sukham bhoge me atthi). The second is the happiness due to debtlessness (anana sukham), further described as “the feeling one gets when one knows that no debt is owed, great or small to any one.”^[13]

Money should be sought after by lawful means (dhammena bhoge pariyesati) without harm to others (asahasena). A person should make use of his money (bhoga) without greed, longing, without infatuation, watchful of the dangers arising out of money (bhoga) and alive to his wellbeing.^[14] Money (bhoga) obtains legitimacy in the eyes of the Buddhist writers only when it is properly gained and put to use in a manner beneficial to society.

Money (bhoga) is compared to cool lake, useless in a desert, but useful near a town or a village for its use for the people staying in them. If the money (bhoga) is not properly utilized (aparibhunjamano, literally not consumed, not eaten) then it is sequestered by kings or stolen by robbers, or is destroyed by fire or floods or appropriated by unpleasant heirs. Thus bhoga that is not properly used runs to waste, not to proper consumption.^[15] The writers insisted that the lawfully acquired money was needed for discharging the political, social, economic and religious obligations and duties required of a householder.

The Buddhist texts in keeping with their desire to enhance the well-being of their lay constituency, offer them advise on how to regulate their financial matters. In his famous advice to a gahapati’s son sigala, the Buddha says that one should amass money (bhoga) by correct means, like bees would while gathering honey from flowers. One should divide money (bhoga) in four portions. On portion of money should be designated for personal consumption (ekena bhoge bhunjejyya). One should keep two portion for conducting one’s business. The fourth portion should be kept in reserve, for one might need it in times of difficulty.^[16]

One can generate money, increase it and spend it wisely only with sustained hard work and enterprising spirit. There are three kinds of persons (puggala): the blind (andho), the one-eyed (enacakkhu) and two-eyed (dvicakkhu). The blind has not the eye to acquire money (bhoga) as yet attained or to make the money (bhoga) he has increased. He is unable to distinguish bad from good, worthy from unworthy. He is unlucky. The one-eyed-man, ignoring right or wrong searches for money (bhoga). With tricks, frauds and lies, but endowed with worldly cleverness, he is successful in gaining money (bhoga). But when he dies he suffers in hell (niraya). The two-eyed is the best (settham) among the lot. He acquires money (bhoga) with determination and by rightful means and gives it away in charity. Stay away (parivajjaye), warns the text, from the blind and the one-eyed, but mingle with the two-eyed man.^[17] Money can be earned by unethical means, but such means have unpleasant consequences in this and afterlife. The best way to go about making money is to acquire it lawfully by remaining alert and discriminating. Having secured it, there is a need to distribute some of it in charity. The very same message concerning acquisition and spending of money rightfully was conveyed by the Buddha to the gahapati. Anathapindika in the upasaka vagga of the Aguttara Nikaya.^[18]

In an acquisitive society, the Buddhist writers articulate their awareness of the imbalance and disparity of wealth found within it. They were cynical enough to observe the grim social and economic reality of their environment; the reality that money can subvert justice and that lack of it can result in an abject humiliation of a person. A certain person has to go to prison for theft of a half a Kahapana, a Kahapana or a hundred Kahapanas. Another person does not have to go to prison, though he steals the same amount. This is because, comments the Buddha, the former is a poor person (daliddo) with little money (appabhogo), while the other person is rich (addho) and has lots of money (mahabhogo).^[19]

In the second instance, it is said that one of the attributes of a great robber (maha coro) is that he is the one who influences people by giving them money (bhoga cagi). It is possible because he is rich (addho) and has plenty of money (mahabhogo), he thinks, “Should any one question (Vakkhati) me, I shall make him friendly from now on by giving him money (ito bhogena patisantharissami).” He acts in this manner if anyone does question him. Pursuing such a course, the robber breaks into houses, makes off with plunder, makes for lonely houses or lies in wait in the highway.^[20]

Commenting on poverty and wealth, the Vinaya with its usual cryptic manner observes: “Life is wretched (papakam nama jivitam). The life of the poor (daliddanam jivatam). The life of the rich (addhanam); of the unwealthy (adhananam) is wretched compared to the life of the wealthy (sadhananam); the life of the human beings (manussanam) is wretched compared to the life of the gods (devanam).”^[21] A poor man, needy and in straits, borrows. When the bill falls due, he does not pay and creditors press for money. And they bind him and put him in Jail.^[22] However, it might be added here that the Buddhists would not allow anyone to become a monk unless that person cleared his debts first before joining the order.^[23]

As a great teacher who had given up his householder’s life in search of nibbana, the Buddha’s ultimate rejection of money (bhoga) for himself is self-evident. Others too, who joined his order as monks and nuns had to abandon the whole mass of money, however little or great (appam va bhoga khandham pahaya mahantam va bhoga kandham). In the final analysis, the money is not conducive to happiness. The Buddha once asked: “Even if a person were to accumulate vast amount of money (mahantam bhogakhandam), would that person, because of his money (bhoga hetu), on account of his money (bhoga nidanam), as result of his money (bhoga adhikaranam), be totally happy for a single night, or a single day or even half a night or half a day?” He receives the answer in the negative.

The Buddha says to the monks in his sermon that the loss of such thing as money (bhoga) is a trifling matter. The loss of wisdom brings in utter misery (panna parihani).^[24] In yet another instance, the Buddha shows his concern about the monks who may accumulate money (bhoga).^[25] This fear appears to have been from the pleas made by monks’ relatives, friends and even kings, asking them to return to the householder’s status. They say to a monk: “Come, monk, why should these yellow robes torment you? Why do you parade about with shaven head and bowl? Return to the lower plane of life. Enjoy the use of money (bhoga) and do deeds of merit.^[26]

In the Theravada tradition, the monks were not allowed to own houses, fields, cattle, the touch of gold or silver and engage in trade. They neither took part in production nor exercised the least control over the means of production. Kosambi observes that their non-competitiveness may have given them a competitive edge over the demanding brahmana priesthood.^[27]

But this very strategy may have exacerbated their dependence on the welfare doled out by the host society. The Buddhist order for their survival had to depend solely on gifts (dana) bestowed on them by their lay followers. The principle of gift-giving (dana) is often emphasized in the Buddha’s teachings to his lay followers. When a gift (dana) is given with faith it ripens and results in great increase of money (bhoga) and property for the giver. Moreover, the giver’s children, wives and servants listen to him delightedly and serve him faithfully.^[28] Gift giving (dana) is specially conducive to reaching heaven. By giving gift (dana) to the future Buddha, a person is born seven times to the heavenly world.^[29] Even among the close followers of the Buddha there is distinction made between a follower who practices giving gift (dana) and the one who does not. The followers alike in faith, virtue and insight, after death, are reborn in the happy heaven. But the disciple who is a giver, when he becomes God, surpasses the non-giver God in five ways: in divine life span, beauty, happiness, honour and power.^[30]

Summing up, the Buddha’s teachings to his lay followers, many of whom were urban, and members of the rich, powerful and rising gahapati class, addressed their economic, social and ethical concerns. It was known to them through the Buddha’s message that their success and happiness in life largely depended on possessing money, consuming it, conserving it and actively participating in its acquisition. Poverty was not a virtue to be cultivated. A harmonious message was that success in generating money depended on self-reliance, hard work, diligence and enterprising spirit. A good method of making money was to engage in commercial activities. The Buddha stressed on earning money by lawful and moral means and its possession brought with it corporate responsibilities to share it with members of the family and lineage and other dependents, in particular, dependents such as the Buddhist monks and nuns. The renouncers like the Buddha and his monks in their quest for nibbana had no intrinsic value for money.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Pali English Dictionary, bhoga, S.V.

[2]:

Ibid.

[3]:

Anguttara Nikaya.IV.6-7.

[4]:

Ibid., III.129.

[5]:

Ibid., II.157.

[6]:

Ibid., III.222.

[7]:

Sanyutta Nikaya.I.44.

[8]:

Anguttara Nikaya.V.135.

[9]:

Ibid., p. 136.

[10]:

Sanyutta Nikaya.IV.238.

[11]:

Ibid.,p. 246.

[12]:

Anguttara Nikaya.II.66-67.

[13]:

Ibid., 69.

[14]:

Ibid., V.177.

[15]:

Samyutta Nikaya.I.90-91.

[16]:

Digha Nikaya.III.188.

[17]:

Ibid., I.129-30.

[18]:

Ibid., V.176-82.

[19]:

Anguttara Nikayai.V.84.

[20]:

Ibid., I.250-51.

[21]:

Ibid., III.129.

[22]:

Vinaya.III.73.

[23]:

Samyutta Nikaya.III.351.

[24]:

Anguttara Nikaya.V.84.

[25]:

Ibid., III.109.

[26]:

Samyutta Nikaya.IV.190.

[27]:

D.D. Kosambi, Introduction to Indian History, 168.

[28]:

Samyutta Nikaya.I.89-90.

[29]:

Ibid., 92.

[30]:

Anguttara Nikaya.III.32-33.