Māgha’s diversity in composition

Māgha was able to reflect his experience and sagacity in everywhere of his epic. From the Śiśupālavadha the social condition of the time of Māgha is realised. On the other hand we also realise his profound scholarship in rhetorice end literature. This has given him the royal place in the sanskrit epic literature. This has given him a clear gesture of social life at the time of Māgha as the literature is the mirror of a society. Māgha’s epic is not exception. At the time of Māgha we find the supremacy of Vaidikadharma. At that time there was the Māṇḍalikan and Republican customs were present. In royal custom there is indication about the word Māṇ ḍala and Biṣaya etc. in Orissa. In the middle era there was also Sāmanta system. In this time there was division of the country through Bhūkti or province and Bisaya or district. Kings were overall powerful to rule.

They forcefully brought to an end their enemies.

“ucchidya vidviṣa iva prasabhaṃ mṛgendrānidrānujānucarabhūpatayo'dhyavātsuḥ |
vanyebhamastakanikhātanakhāgramuktāphalaprakarabhāPñja guhāgṛhāṇi ||” 5.12 ||^[1]

Beside this in the verse ‘karadīkṛta bhūpāla’ (Śiśu., 2/9) etc. tax payment, etc. proves that constitutional system was working smoothly. The introduction of the constitutional system of social life is gracefully reflected by Māgha in his epic. At that time agricultural activities, keeping of cows and business system etc. were progressive. Agriculture had superior role in the economic system. It is observed in his epic in the verse number twenty first of twelfth canto using the word ‘Kṛṣṭasamīkṛtā’ and verse number thirty–fourth of fourteenth canto using the word ‘dhanāni vījabat. (dhanāni vījavat) |

It is observed in the Śiśupālavadha the mobilized armed force, diplomacy, political separation, custom of chaste and sacrificial ceremony were the part of social life. About this custom R.P. Tripathi said in North India—“That the custom of sati was widely prevalent during 7^th to 12^th centuries of the Christian era in Northern India, is supported by the literary epigraphic and archaeological data”. (Śiśupālavadha kāvyasamīkṣā by Bishnupada Dutta, p. 264). In the district of Guṇa of Madhya Pradesh in Chanderi there is Satī temple seemed to be of that time. It is said that chanderi was the kingdom Cedī and Śiśupāla was the ruler of chanderi.

It is said that Śrī Kṛṣṇa went there to meet with him. At present there is no historical proof of Cidī dynasty except the satī temple.

Poet Māgha combined the religious systems in his epic. People of this epic of Māgha were rich, prosperous and happy. People of this society believed to re-birth theory.

The devoted ladies wished to get the same person as husband in their next birth also.

“satīva yoṣit prakṛtiḥ suniścalā pumāṃsamabhyeti bhavāntareṣvapi ||” 1. 72 ||^[2]

It is sketched in the epic Śiśupālavadha the afflicted separation of a newly married woman while leaving her parents.

Apart from this the beautiful description of nature of this epic is attractive.

“apaśaṅkamaṅkaparivarttanocitāścalitāḥ puraḥ patimupetumātmajāḥ |
anuroditīva karuṇena patriṇāṃ virutena vatsalatayaiṣa nimtagāḥ ||” 4.47 ||^[3]

All these are reflected in the above mentioned verse.

Beside this ornament for the ears, necklace, jewellery or ornament, entertainment of the guests, polygamy and the skillfulness of the women on scriptures and arms are depicted in the epic.

Poet is skilled to describe the city, the experience of journey, knowledge of materials etc. In this way the picture of the society is reflected in the epic of Māgha. Observing all the above descriptions the various critics have given their own opinions.

Some of them said that the talent of Bhāravi withered after the incarnation of Māgha.

“tāvadbhā bhāraverbhāti yāvan māghasya nodayaḥ |
udite naiṣaghe kāvye kva māghaḥ kva ca bhāraviḥ ||”

Many of the critic changed the second line of the verse. They told:

“udite naiṣadhe kāvye bhāraverbhāraveriva” |

Some of them also said that upamā (simile) of Kālidāsa arthagaurava (depth of meaning) of Bhāravi and padalālitya (elegance of ward) of Daṇḍin, all these three qualities are present in the creation of Māgha.

“upamā kālidāsasya bhāraverarthagauravam |
naiṣadhe padalālityaṃ māghe santi ttayoguṇāḥ ||”

In actual sense all these traditions are to be justified. It can be said that these qualities can be reflected as per own choice of the great personalities.

Because:

‘bhinnarucirhilokaḥ |

Some persons like upamā (simile)where as some persons like utprekṣā. Like wise some likes deep sense of words and some likes padalālitya (elegance of ward). In this way those who like the composition of poet kālidāsa dislike the deep senseful words. Hence again those who like padalālitya, (elegance of ward) dislike other qualities. So all the matters depend upon the choice of particular person.

So, famous quotes are created. The explanation of the word arthagaurava (deep senseful word) is very mysterious. Beside this we can also find another quotation (pravāda).

There it has been declared that Kālidāsa is the greatest poet and the Śiśupālavadha of Māgha is the greatest composition as Kāvya (epic).

“puṣpeṣu jātī nagarīṣu kāñcī, nārīṣu rambhā puruṣeṣu viṣṇuḥ |
nadīṣu gaṅgā nṛpatau ca rāmaḥ kāvyeṣu māghaḥ kavi kālidāsaḥ ||”

Kālidāsa was famous for his Simile. Simile is based on similarity (sādṛ śya). Many belief that other poets have declined in front of the application feature of Kālidāsa’s upamā (simile). Where as many belief that the poet Māgha was expert in the application of śāstrīya upamā.

As for anutsūtra etc. verse.

“anutsūtrapadanyāsā sadvṛttiḥ sannivandhanā |
śavdavidyeva no bhāti rājanītirapaspaśā ||”2.112 ||^[4]

Again:

“sarvakāryaśarīreṣu muttāṅgaskandhapañcakam |
saugatānāmivātmānyo nāsti mantro mahībhṛtām ||” 2.28 ||^[5]

Proficiency in the application of simile is found in the following verses of Māgha.

navānadho'dho vṛhataḥ payodharān samūḍhakarpūraparāgapāṇḍuram |
kṣaṇaṃkṣaṇotkṣiptagajendrakṛttinā sphuṭopamaṃ bhūtisitena śambhūnā || 1. 4 ||^[6]

dadhānamambhoruhakesaradyutīrjaṭāḥ śaraccandramarīcirocirociṣām |
vipākapiṅgāstuhinasthalīruho dharādhareŒdraṃ patatī tatīriva || 1. 5 ||^[7]

vaṇaiḥ katipayaireva grathitasya svarairiva |
anantā vāṅamayasyāho! geyasyeva vicitratā || 2. 72 ||^[8]

ubhau yadi vyomni pṛthak pravāhāvākāśagaṅgāpayasaḥ patetām |
tenopamīyeta tamālanīlamāmukkamuktālatamasya vakṣaḥ || 3. 8 ||^[9]

vidvadbhirāgamaparairvivṛtaṃ kathañcicchutvāpi durgrahamaniścitadhībhiranyaiḥ |
śreyān dvijātiriva hantumaghāni dakṣaṃ gūḍhārthameṣa nidhimantragaṇaṃ vibharti || 4. 37 ||^[10]

And—

kṣaṇaśayitavivuddhāḥ kalpayantaḥ prayogānudadhimahati rājye kāvyavaṭṭurvigāhe |
gahanamapararātraprāptavuddhiprasādāḥ kavaya iva bhahīpā ścintayattyarthajātam || 11. 6 ||^[11]

Application of simile by Māgha is not so good like the application of Kālidāsa in the Abhijñānaśakuntala and the Raghuvaṃśa.

It may be clearly found that there is difference between the composition of Kālidāsa and the composition of Māgha through an example.

In the Śiśupālavadha the verse is—

“dadhānamambhīruhakeśaradyutīrjaṭā śaraccandramarīcirociṣam |
vipākapiṅgāstuhinasthalīruhodharādhareŒdraṃ patatītatīriva ||” 1.5 ||^[12]

In the Raghuvaṃśa (1.1) the verse is—

“bāgarthāviva sampṛktau vāgarthapratipattaye |
jagataḥ pitarau vandai pārvatīparameśvarau ||” 1. 1 ||^[13]

The language used by Māgha to narrate Nārada and Himālaya is not easy to comprehend. On the other hand the above said verse of the Raghuvaṃśa where application of simile relates Pārvatī and Parameśvara is charming and easy to understand.

The verse is full of figures of speech and an example of literary art. Its main cause is the eagerness of Kālidāsa towards natural beauty and literary art. In the literary world adoption of similes is based on beauty. The application of alaṃkāra in poem is expression of beauty only. In the literary world simile has occupied a vast portion. In this context Rajsekhara said metaphore is the crown of the head and mother of poets.

In the following verse—

“alaṃkāraśirorantaṃ sarvasvaṃ kāvyasampadām |
upamā kavivaṃśasya mātaiveti matirmama ||”

The poetical expression of Māgha is only the display of learning which is depended arduous task.

It may not be said that Kālidāsa was less learned person than Māgha. The literary works of Kālidāsa was based on his skillfulness. Basically his limitless feelings of real life, awareness in literature and his skill attracted the readers. On the other hand these matters are ascribed in the epic of Māgha. In the epic of Māgha intelligence superseded the sentiments and simplicity.

Arthagaurava (depth of meaning) means maximum ideas thoughts and feelings expressed in the limited words. This type of arthagaurava (depth of meaning) is found also in the Kāvya (epic) of Bhāravi also. Not only language and feelings are expressed there but the suggestiveness is also found in the arthagaurava. (depth of meaning).

In this context commentator Mallinātha said—

‘nārikela phalasammitaṃ vaco bhārave’: |

When the hard part of the coconut is broken we get the soft and tasty substance like wise through difficult words of the Kāvya (epic) we get its glourious meaning. Using various figures of speech like arthāntaranyāsa, arthāpatti, aprastutapraśaṃsā, prativastūpamā etc. poet Māgha presented arthagaurava (depth of meaning) in his kāvya (epic).

Bhāranvi was expert in politics. We observe the moral science in his creation. Māgha had versatility. Total depth of meaning is found in the epic of Māgha. As for—

“mradīyasīmapi ghanāmanalpaguṇakalpitām |
prasārayanti kuśalāścitrāṃ vācaṃ paṭīmiva ||” 2.74 ||^[14]

Māgha expressed arthagaurava (depth of meaning) through arthāntaranyāsa.

In the verse no. 1/38—

upaplutaṃ pātumado madoddhataistvameva viśvambhara viśvamīśiṣe |
ṛteḥraveḥ kṣālayituṃ kṣameta kaḥ kṣapātamaskāṇḍamalīmasaṃ nabhaḥ || 1. 38 ||^[15]

Safeguard of the harassed victims were expressed in brief through the prativastūpamā alaṃkāras. So this verse deserves the arthagaurava (depth of meaning). Badluck never helps to achieve success. Such astrological decision has been enlightened through arthāntaranyāsa alaṃkāra in one of the verse. arthagaurava (depth of meaning) is present here.

“pratikūlatāmupagate hi vidhau viphalatvameti vahusādhanatā |
avalamvanāya dinabhartturabhūnna patiṣyataḥ karasahasramapi ||” 9.6 ||^[16]

Like this 1/71, 2/3, 13-21 etc. verses prove arthagaurava.

“svayaṃ vidhātā suradaityarakṣasāmanugrahāvagrahayoryadṛcchayā |
daśānanādīnabhirāddhe devatāvitīrṇa vīryātiśayān hasatyasau || 1.71 ||^[17]

“jājvalyamānā jagataḥ śāntaye samupeyuṣī |
vyadyotiṣṭa sabhāvedyāmasau naraśikhitrayī || 2.3 ||^[18]

yādadarthapadāṃ vācamevamādāya mādhavaḥ |
virarāma mahīyāṃsaḥ prakṛtya mitabhāṣiṇaḥ || 2.13 ||^[19]

The valuable feeling of kāvya sentiment is not easy when it is to realise through difficult languages and writing styles. This is appropriate for Bhāravi and Māgha. Actually the glory of meaning is of the glory of language. So, the glory of real sense can be felt in the kāvya (epic) of Kālidāsa.

The word padalālitya is a special quality in the field of kāvya śāstra. Vitality of the words is the soul of the language. Among the poets who uses easy words in his epic properly naturally, his writing style becomes easy and charming Padalālitya (elegance of a word) is present in the ‘Daśakumāracarita’ of Daṇḍin. If some one tries to give gracefulness in his prose epic. While practicing then his epic does not shows natural beauty, this gives an artificial look. Padalālitya (elegance of word) of the Naiṣadhacarita is easy to enjoy.

Some examples about padalālitya (elegance of word) of Māgha’s epic can be presented.

“rājīva rājīvaśalolabhṛṅgaṃ muṣṇantamuṣṇaṃ tatibhistarūṇām |
kāntālakāntālalanāḥ surāṇāṃ rakṣobhirakṣobhitamūdvahantam ||” 4.9 ||^[20]

Beside this—

“navapalāśapalāśavanaṃ puraḥ sphuṭaparāgaparāgatapaṅkajam |
mṛdulatāntalatāntamalokayat sa surabhiṃ surabhiṃ sumanobharaiḥ ||” 6.2 ||^[21]

Māgha has presented padalālitya (elegance of word) through the purport like ‘yamaka’, ‘anuprāsa’, etc. In this way the verses 4/15, 6/14, 6/20, 11/11, 11/64 etc. are the beautiful example of padalālitya. (elegance of word).

The verse are—

“yatrojjhitābhirmuhuramvuvāhaiḥ samunnamadbhirna samunnamadbhiḥ |
vanaṃ vavādhe viṣapāvakotthā vicannagānāmavipannagānām ||” 4.15 ||^[22]

vadanasaurabhaloparibhramad bhramarasambhṛtaśobhayā |
calitayā vidadhe kalamekhalākalakalo'lakaloladṛśānyayā || 6.14 ||^[23]

madhurayāmadhuvodhitamādhavī madhusamṛddhisamedhitakamedhayā |
madhukarāṅganayā muhurunmadadhvanibhṛtā nibhṛtākṣaramujjage || 6.20 ||^[24]

Many of the poets complimented the beautiful arrangement of words presented by Māgha. Epic of Māgha is the best example of the padalālitya (the elegance of word). They also commented that Māgha is the superior to the padalālitya (elegance of word) than Daṇḍin and ŚrīHarṣa in the perspective of the elegance of word.

The description of nature by Kālidāsa is charming and spontaneous. It can be concluded that kālidāsa’s writings simile, elegance of word and depth of maning have glorified his works.

Māgha was aso well versed in the field of upamā (simile) arthagaurava (depth of meaning) and padalālitya (elegance of word).

“māghe santi trayo guṇāḥ”

The word “trayo guṇāḥ” indicates mādhurya (gracefulness), ojāḥ (vigour) and prasāda (perspicuity) qualities in māgha’s epic. Mammaṭa author of kāvyaprakāsa did not accept ten qualities in the Kāvya. He accepted only three qualities.

In the Kāvyaprakāsa he said—

mādhuryojaḥ prasādākhyāstrayaste na punardaśaḥ |

Many verses of the Śiśupālavadha were enriched with these three qualities can be found in Māghas epic. As for example—

“yāvadarthapadāṃ vācamevamādāya mādhavaḥ |
virarāmaṃ mahīyāṃsaḥ prakṛtya mitabhāṣiṇaḥ || 2.13 ||^[25]

In this above mentioned verse we find the perspicuity (prasāda quality).

According to Daṇḍin prasāda (perspicuity) quality is—

“prasādavat prasiddhārthamindorindīvaradyuti |
lakṣma rlakṣmīṃ tanotīti pratītisubhagaṃ vacaḥ ||
vyutpannamiti gauḍiyairnātirūṭamapīṣyate |
yathānatyarjjunāvjanma sadṛkṣāṅko valakṣaguḥ ||” 1.45-46 ||^[26]

It is said in the śarasvatīkaṇṭhābharaṇa of Bhoja—

“prasiddhārthapadatvaṃ yat sa prasādo nigadyate |” (1/66)

Again according to Bāmana Kāvyālaṃ kārasūtravṛtti the perspicuity (prasada) quality is—

‘arthavaimalyaṃ prasādaḥ’ (3.2.3).

Beside this it is said:

“śaithilyaṃ prasādaḥ” | (3.1.9).

As for the In the Śiśupālavadha we get the following verse:

“dṛṣṭo'pi śailaḥ sa muhurmurārerapūrvavadvismayamātatāna |
kṣaṇe kṣaṇe yannavatāmupaiti tadevarupaṃ ramaṇīyatāyāḥ |” 4.17^[27]

And yāvadarthapadāṃ vācamevamādāya mādhavaḥ | virarāma mahīyāṃsaḥ prakṛtya mitabhāṣiṇaḥ | 2.13 ||^[28]

According to Daṇḍin’s kāvyādarśa (1/51) the gracefulness (mādhurya) quality is—

“madhuraṃ rasavad vāci vastunyapi rasasthitiḥ |
yena mādyānti dhīmanto madhuneva madhuvratā ||” 1.51 ||^[29]

According to Bāmana gracefulness (mādhurya) quality is:

‘pṛthakpadatvaṃ mādhuryam’ (3.1.21)
‘uktivaicitryaṃ mādhuryam’(3.2.10) |

There are many verses enriched with gracefulness (Mādhurya) quality in the epic of Māgha’s Śiśupālavadha. As for—

“manyase'rivadhaḥ śreyān prītaye nākināmiti |
puroḍāśabhūjāmiṣṭamiṣṭaṃ karttumalantarām ||” 2.106 ||^[30]

There are many examples of ojo (vigour quality) in the Śiśupālavadha also. Daṇḍin said about this quality—

‘ojaḥ samāsabhūyastvametad gadyasya jīvitam’ | (Kāvyādarśa 1/ 80).

According to Bāmana

‘gāḍhavandhatvamoja: (Kāvyalaṃkāra sūtravṛtti 3.3.5)

He also says—

‘arthasya prauḍhirojaḥ’ (3.22) ||

There are many verses with ojo guṇa (vigour quality) in the Śiśupālavadha.

As for—

“anutsūtrapadanyāsā sadvṛttiḥ sannivandhanā |
śavdavidyeva no bhāti rājanītirapaspaśā ||”2.112 ||^[31]

Some person says that ten qualities may be found in the following verse which are suggested by Daṇḍin.

“vikacakamalagandhairandhayan bhṛṅgamālāḥ surabhitamākarandaṃ mandamāvāti vātaḥ |
pramadamadanamādyadyauvanoddāma—rāmā—ramaṇa—rabhasakheda—svedavicchedadakṣaḥ ||” 11.19 ||^[32]

‘navasargagate māghe navaśavdo na vidyate’.

Leaving much practiced word Māgha used many words which were proved by the rules of grammar. Such words are not easily understandable by general readers and very rare in general dictionary.

As for in substitute of ‘muktāvalī’ he used ‘tārāvali’ (5/21)

“chāyāvidhayibhiranu gjhitabhūtiśobhairucchāyibhirvahalapāṭaladhānurāgaiḥ |
dūṣyairiva kṣitibhṛtāṃ dviradairudāratārāvalī viracanaircyarucannivāsāḥ” || 5.21 ||^[33]

Poet Māgha used notorious words in his epic the Śiśupālavadha . On the other hand the meaning of the above quotation is after the ninth canto Māgha did not use the new word. No other poet is able to use the new word out of the words used by Māgha. He was well versed in the field of Sanskit language and grammar. So, he used new words (synonymous words) to enrich his epic the Śiśupālavadha. The meaning of the word gotrabhida (gotrabhida) is Indra which is found in the eightieth verse of the nineth canto.

But Māgha used this word in the sense of splitter of mountain.

“tadayukkamaṅgatava viśvasṛjā na kṛtaṃ yadīkṣaṇsahasratayam |
prakaṭīkṛtā jagati yena khalu sphuṭamindratādya mayi gotrabhidā ||” 9.80 ||^[34]

The skill of using new words by poet Māgha in his epic the Śiśupālavadha. It is said—

‘navasargegate māghe navaśavdī na vidyate’ |

There is a prevalent speech of the name of Mallinātha about Māgha’s epic, that is:

“māghe meghe gataṃ vaya:” |

To read and realise the epic Māgha one should have lot of knowledge about History and purāṇas. The beautiful description of Alakāpurī in the Meghadūta always attracts the readers. Among the sentiments śṛṅgāra rasa (sentiment of love) is main sentiment.

Rudrata said:

‘śṛṅgāranāyako rasa’:,

This erotic sentiment or śṛṅgāra is classified in two categories i.e. vipralambha (deception) and śṛṅgāra (sentiment of loves). They depend on each other to fulfill their meaning. If the Meghadūta is considered as deception (vipralambha śṛṅgāra) and the Śiśupālavadha is considered as sentiment of love (sambhoga śṛṅgāra) then these two epics will be treated as the example of the two categories of love. Although heroic sentiment is the main of the Śiśupālavadha.

In this context Winternitz said—

“But the chief credit of Magha lies in the sphere of erotics.”^[35]

If it is described in this way that it is inevitable that to make life enjoyable and successful, one should read Meghadūta and the Śiśupālavadha, than the significance of speech—“māghe meghe gataṃ vayaḥ” is realised.

In the Śiśupālavadha some where the sentiment of love is expressed in such a way that it went beyond the heroic sentiment.

Co-habitation is mostly described in the tenth canto. In the fourth to ninth canto there is superiority of description but here in many verses the sentiment of love is highlighted. Among the twenty cantos, twelve or thirteen cantos are based on the sentiment of love. So, for lustful heavenly feeling the two epics the Meghadūta and the Śiśupālavadha must be read. Here the speech is Justified.

In the context of the epic of Māgha it is said in the History of Sanskrit literature by De and Dasgupta that—

“His poem is careful mosaic of the good and the bad of his predecessors, some of whose inspiration he may have caught, but some of whose mannerisms he develops to no advantage.”^[36]

Many critic stated with reason that the epic of Māgha is the best epic than kālidāsa and Bhāravi—“But the immense popularity of his poem also show that there is always a demand for poetry of a little lower and more artificial kind”.^[37]

Actually Māgha is a poet of art of love. It is also said in the History of Sanskrit literature by De and Dasgupta—“Like Bharavi he is a poet, not of love, but of art of love.”^[38]

Macdonell said about Māgha’s epic—“This Kavya is as a whole, by no means lacking in poetical beauties and striking thoughts”.^[39]

The merits and demerits of this epic (the Śiśupālavadha) is stated by keith in his ‘classical Sanskrit literature’.

“the defect is made good by the usal luxuriance of erotic and other descriptions in which Magha endeavours, every now and then with brilliant success, to improve on the ideas expressed in the stanzas of his predecessors. His chief merit lies precisely in some of these word pictures, whose merits need not be denied, despite the effort requisite to extricate them from tedious conceils”.^[40]

Winternitz also said—

“In the manuals of poetics Magha’s Sisupalavadha is quoted very frequently from which we can see, as to the extent to which the Indian scholars of poetics held him in high esteem.”^[41]

In the proposal of Sranskrit language and Sanskrit literature scripture Iswarchandra vidyasagar said-Māgha has wonderful poetic spirit and description skill. Poet Māgha is well versed and talented. Though there is artificiality in his epic but as a poet he is successful. In the field of poetic sentiment he is totally perfect. Among many good qualities his imperfections are disappeared.

In this cotext the speech of Kālidāsa in the Kumārasambhava (1.3) is memorable:

“eko hi doṣo guṇasantipāte nimajjatīndoḥ kiraṇesvivāṅka”: 1.3 ||^[42]

In the world of Sanskrit literature the contribution of Māgha is valuable.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

ibid., p. 165.

[2]:

ibid., p. 42.

[3]:

ibid., p.174.

[4]:

ibid., p. 100.

[5]:

ibid., p. 59.

[6]:

ibid., p. 3.

[7]:

ibid., p. 4.

[8]:

ibid., p. 80.

[9]:

ibid., p. 108.

[10]:

ibid., p. 168.

[11]:

ibid., p. 434.

[12]:

ibid., p. 4.

[13]:

Gopal Raghunath Nandargikar: Op. cit., p. 2.

[14]:

Haridas Siddhantavagisha: Op.cit., p. 81.

[15]:

ibid., p. 23.

[16]:

ibid., p. 346.

[17]:

ibid., p. 42.

[18]:

ibid., p. 47.

[19]:

ibid., p. 52.

[20]:

ibid., p. 152.

[21]:

ibid., p. 228.

[22]:

ibid., p. 155.

[23]:

ibid., p. 234.

[24]:

ibid., p. 237.

[25]:

ibid., p. 52.

[26]:

Jamuna Pathak: Op.cit., pp.54-55.

[27]:

Haridas Siddhatavagisha: Op.cit.,p.156.

[28]:

ibid., p. 52.

[29]:

Jamuna Pathak: Op.cit., p. 57.

[30]:

Haridas Siddhatavagisha: Op.cit., p. 97.

[31]:

ibid., p. 100

[32]:

ibid., p. 441.

[33]:

ibid., p. 200.

[34]:

ibid., p. 382.

[35]:

M. Winternitz: Op.cit., VOl. III, Part-1, p.74.

[36]:

De and Dasgupta: Op.cit., p.193.

[37]:

ibid., p.194.

[38]:

ibid., p.193.

[39]:

Arthur, A Macdonell: A History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 278.

[40]:

A. B. Keith: Classical Sanskrit Literature, p. 43.

[41]:

M. Winternitz: History of Indian Literature, Vol-14, Part-1, p. 76.

[42]:

Suryakanta: Op.cit., p. 1.