4. Transitional aspects of Dharma in Indian Thought

For a general investigation of the transition of the Dharma concept in Indian thought, we may categorize it into two periods namely Vedic period and Classical period.

I. Vedic Dharma

In the primitive vedic concept of ṛta, Dharma assumes a more sublime as well as refiner form, the word for truth, and it stands for an impersonal order or law. It stands as much for a social as for a moral order and is considered as a ethical law of controlling the state of affairs of the whole universe (Ṛgveda, 4. 23. 8, 9, 5. 63. 1, 7, 7. 66. 13, 10. 10. 4, 66. 4, 190. 1). The word ṛta stands for the unerring order found in the course of natural phenomena, which are defined in the Veda, and also, more importantly, it is the moral order in obeyance to which gods and men are to conduct themselves. The concept of ṛta is not a speculative abstraction but a concentrate reality which is apprehended directly in the course of natural phenomena. Further it is not a mythical concept, for nowhere do we find deification or anthropomorphication of ṛta. It is rather discussed in man’s relation with nature and with fellow men. The vedic idea of nature is not disconnected with man’s social and personal experiences and thus we have a complex idea of cosmic-moral order (Illa Ravi, 2002: 19).

II. Dharma in Classical Period

We have to go through the Dharmasūtras, Smṛtis and some philosophical systems for getting an idea about the concept of Dharma in the classical period.

i. Dharmasūtras

The Dharmasūtras are generally considered to be evolved from Vedas. They deal with the social, ethical and moral conduct of the three castes Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya and Vaiśya. The rules and regulations of an individual that should be practiced in their social life is the subject matter of Dharmasūtras. The Dharmasūtras of Āpastamba, Āśvalāyana, Gautama, Bauddhāyana, Vasiṣṭha, Vaikhānasa, Śākalya, Satyāṣāḍha, Sāvanīya etc are now available. The contents of Dharmasūtras are generally classified as four:-

1. Ācāra (Customary rites of castes and life stages)

2. Vyavahāra (Crimes, punishments etc.)

3. Prāyascitta (Recompenses for the injustice happened by the violation of customary rites)

4. Rājadharma (The responsibilities of a king)

In short, a complete structure of laws and customs in the Cāturvarṇya system caste was in its topmost stage in India and the life frame of people tuned according to the Dharmasūtra literatue.

ii. Smṛtis

In the history of Dharma literature, the Smṛtis are the works written in a more or less simple and metrical style. Manusmṛti is considered the oldest and authentic text. A subset of the Smṛti literature are texts that deal specifically with Dharma, explaining in detail what constitutes right or wrong action in defined circumstances. Bhagavadgīta provide a list of 26 qualities to be cultivated in support of Dharma (16. 1-3). According to Manusmṛti contentment, forgiveness, self-control, abstention from unrighteously appropriating anything, obedience to the rules of purification, coercion of the organs, wisdom, knowledge of the supreme soul, truthfulness and abstention from anger are the ten specific attributes of Virtue or Dharma^[1].

The Dharmasūtras are concerned with imparting instruction in the Dharma of Varṇas and Āśramas. Medhātithi, the commentator of Manusmṛti states that the expounders of Smṛtis dilate upon Dharma as five categories-Varṇadharma, Āśramadharma, Varṇāśramadharma, Naimittikadharma and Guṇadharma respectively. In the Mitākṣarā commentary on Yājñavalkyasmṛti adds Sādhāraṇadharma as sixth (Pandurang Vaman Kane, 1990: 4).

iii. Philosophical Systems

Here mention may also be made about the Dharma of two heterodox systems, Buddhism and Jainism. The doctrine of Dharma (Dhamma in Pāli language) taught by Buddha is summed up in four noble truths named Āryasatyas. They are: 1). Life is permeated by dukha (suffering), (2). The origin of suffering lies in craving, (3). The cessation of suffering is possible through the cessation of craving, (4). The way to do it is the noble eightfold path (Aṣṭāṅgamārga). In Jainism the concept of Dharma is too much different and it is something very technical. Here Dharma means the state of motion otherwise just as the medium of water that support the fish to move. Likewise, Dharma is the condition of the movement of the soul or a material thing. So, the Jains use Dharma in a technical sense and not in its ordinary moral sense of merit or duty (Geogre V. C., 1995: 59).

Dharma is a universally accepted concept as the ethical order is intricately connected with the notions of individual soul, action, retribution, transmigratory life and freedom. Different systems have varied opinion as to the nature of Dharma; as the moral merit, all of them accept it. The reasons behind this universal acceptance of Dharma appear may be its retributive character, autonomy from external agencies, opposition to fatalism, explanatory potential, comprehensive character and its popularity (Illa Ravi, 2002: 85-86).

These are elaborated thus:

-) All systems must accept this lest they endorse moral chaos.

-) Even atheistic systems accept Dharma for it does not require god or any external power for its operation.

-) Dharma makes one architect of one’s own destiny and thus appeals to logic of moral responsibility. It lays greater stress on voluntary moral actions.

-) Dharma morally explains human condition with all its diversities and inequalities.

-) Dharma more or less logically explains the social, religious and spiritual aspects of human life. Any human phenomenon can be explained in the light of this comprehensive ethical category.

-) The popular acceptance of Dharma helps it finding a place for it in every system. It is observance that many sūtras start with analysis of Dharma.

Dharma is not simply a set of laws; it is a set of guidelines whose application requires individual discretion based on one’s particular role and the context of a specific situation. It is also to be noted that as part of the confirmative elements of Brāhmin supremacy, the conceptual interpretations of Dharma always strengthened the caste discriminations and the social stratification in Indian society. The Dharmasūtras, the Smṛtis and the commentaries bring to light bias in favor of the elite culture. The main focus of these texts is on how a Brāhmin male should conduct himself during his life time. Other topics like inheritance, marriage and women are also mentioned, but more often than they are not discussed in so far as they are related to the Brāhmin male (Padmadas K. L., 2016: 77).

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

dhṛtiḥ kṣamā damo'steyaṃ śaucamindriyanigrahaḥ | dhīvidyā satyamakrodho daśakaṃ dharmalakṣaṇam || (¨ÉxÉÖº¨ÉÞÊiÉ&;, 6. 92.)