Ethnobotanical Investigation of Mimusops zeyheri, an Underutilized Indigenous...

[Full title: Ethnobotanical Investigation of Mimusops zeyheri, an Underutilized Indigenous Fruit Tree in Gauteng Province, South Africa]

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Citation: Matlala, M.E.; Ndhlovu, P.T.; Mokgehle, S.N.; Otang-Mbeng, W Ethnobotanical Investigation of Mimusops zeyheri , an Underutilized Indigenous Fruit Tree in Gauteng Province, South Africa Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su 16041410 Academic Editors: Samanta Zelasco and Luca Lombardo Received: 20 November 2023 Revised: 23 January 2024 Accepted: 29 January 2024 Published: 7 February 2024 Copyright: © 2024 by the authors Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/) sustainability Article Ethnobotanical Investigation of Mimusops zeyheri , an Underutilized Indigenous Fruit Tree in Gauteng Province, South Africa Maropeng Erica Matlala 1 , Peter Tshepiso Ndhlovu 1, * , Salmina N. Mokgehle 2 and Wilfred Otang-Mbeng 1 1 School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Private Bag X 11283, Mbombela 1200, South Africa; 220207089@ump.ac.za (M.E.M.); wilfred.mbeng@ump.ac.za (W.O.-M.) 2 School of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Private Bag X 11283, Mbombela 1200, South Africa; salmina.mokgehle@ump.ac.za * Correspondence: tshepiso.ndhlovu@ump.ac.za; Tel.: +27-01-3002-0393 Abstract: In developing countries, the livelihoods of millions of households heavily rely on wild fruit products to meet their basic needs. With its many nutritious assets, Mimusops zeyheri could, therefore, be valued as a natural resource for fighting hunger, poverty, malnutrition and food insecurity in developing countries. Indigenous fruit trees remain underutilized and harvested in the wild, with few cultivated sustainably. The study aimed to explore and document the various uses of M. zeyheri Using face-to-face, semi-structured questionnaires, an ethnobotanical survey was collected among 53 participants using purposive sampling in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality. Descriptive statistics and ethnobotanical indices, such as Use Value (UV) and Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), were used for analysis M. zeyheri was reported to have various uses, which included but was not limited to food and medicine. It was found that the most commonly used plant components were fruits (47%) and leaves (22%). Decoction (39%) was the most popular method of preparation M. zeyheri has become scarce in the surveyed communities, presumably due to extensive habitat destruction caused by population increases. Therefore, due to its scarcity, it does not significantly improve the livelihoods or overall well-being of local communities. This study suggests that M. zeyheri could improve food and economic security if thoroughly investigated and cultivated on a large scale Keywords: food security; livelihoods; medicinal value; preservation; traditional importance 1. Introduction In recent years, there has been a dramatic increase in research into indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) [ 1 ]. Indigenous knowledge (IK) refers to the knowledge common to a specific community or group living in a specific area, derived from their forefathers’ experiences [ 2 ]. This knowledge is considered highly valuable, and if not safeguarded, it can be lost forever [ 1 , 3 ]. With the emergence of the knowledge economy, knowledge has become the key source for social progress and economic growth and sustainability [ 4 ]. Previous studies have also emphasized the significance of indigenous food for the health and nutrition of the humans [ 1 , 5 – 7 ]. Most indigenous foods contain significant nutrients, which can potentially contribute to the daily nutrient intake, especially for people from lower socio-economic backgrounds [ 8 , 9 ]. Moreover, indigenous foods are integral to cultural heritage and are highly valued by local people [ 1 ]. Not only are these indigenous fruit trees significant to the cultural identity of local people and their livelihoods, but they also play an important ecological role [ 10 ]. Therefore, it is imperative that we recognize and understand the significance of indigenous fruit trees in the larger ecosystem, as it will provide possibilities for us to identify opportunities for conservation and sustainable Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410. https://doi.org/10.3390/su 16041410 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 2 of 17 management. Research is being conducted to identify indigenous foods, their nutritional composition and various uses. However, much remains to be explored and understood [ 11 ]. Despite the wide variety of nutrient-rich indigenous fruit trees that can sustain human life, our global food systems are mainly dominated by a few plant crops [ 12 – 14 ]. These underutilized crops significantly reduce global hunger and poverty, but they cannot provide the entire range of nutrients humans require for a healthy life. Therefore, depending on them may potentially contribute to food insecurity [ 15 ]. Due to this, we need a diet that is far more diverse. Many underutilized tree species are rich in nutrients and bioactive compounds and could help diversify diets and address nutrient deficiencies in communities [ 16 – 18 ]. Furthermore, with the alarming increases in human populations, urbanization and climate change, food security has become a serious problem in many developing nations [ 19 ]. Food security exists when all individuals have access to adequate, safe and healthy food, regardless of their physical, economic and social circumstances. Conversely, food insecurity refers to the inability to access good and healthy food, and it can go to the extent of “hidden hunger”, recognized as a deficiency in micronutrients [ 9 ]. “Hidden hunger” can have devastating effects, leading to poor health and sometimes even death [ 20 ]. Additionally, it can also impede socio-economic development in developing countries. Today, the primary concern of the food and agricultural sector is to provide enough nutritional needs for the growing population, while conserving natural resources for future generations [ 21 ]. Therefore, using other potential food sources, such as indigenous fruit tree species, is essential The adoption and utilization of indigenous knowledge is declining, mainly due to increased rural-urban migrations, industrialization, the loss of natural habitats, lifestyle changes and the demise of knowledge holders [ 22 ]. Therefore, recording ethnobotanical information about important indigenous trees is essential for preserving indigenous knowledge. This documentation will allow us to spread awareness of the significance of indigenous trees and promote their widespread cultivation to ensure their contributions to food and income security. If cultivated on a large scale, the nutrient-rich M. zeyheri fruits will provide a valuable source of food to local people. In addition, the tree is also resilient in arid conditions and can therefore contribute to sustainable agriculture in challenging environments. The cultivation of this tree could create economic opportunities, generating income for the communities that are involved in the cultivation, processing and marketing of this tree species. Locals can sell its products at small and large markets. Furthermore, its potential medicinal properties could also open pathways for pharmaceutical developments, adding another layer to its economic impact 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Geographical Position of the Research This study was conducted across three communities (Ga-Rankuwa, Mabopane and Soshanguve) in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng province, South Africa (Figure 1 ). The selected municipality lies between 25 ◦ South and 28 ◦ East of Gauteng province, covering 6298 km 2 surface area. Incorporating the city of Tshwane, the municipality stands as the capital city of the republic of South Africa and is constantly growing Gauteng province is the smallest province in South Africa, sharing its boundaries with North West, Free State, Limpopo and Mpumalanga. This province is also highly urbanized The City of Tshwane municipality is situated north of the province and is one of the singlelargest municipality in the country, with approximately 2.9 million inhabitants [ 23 ]. This district is situated in the country region that receives summer rainfall, and it is home to the grassland and savanna biome [ 24 ]. This region has an average temperature of 29 ◦ C and receives approximately 622 mm of rainfall annually [ 25 , 26 ].

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 3 of 17 Sustainability 2024 , 16 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18 Figure 1. Geographical location of the study City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Gauteng Province, South Africa. 2.2. Study Species This study investigated the ethnobotanical uses of Mimusops zeyheri (Figure 2), also called the Transvaal Red Milkwood, locally known as Mmupudu (Northern Sotho), Mububulu (Venda), Umpushane (Zulu) and Moepel (Afrikaans), is “an evergreen tree with a rounded crown”, belonging to the Sapotaceae family [27]. This large and shady tree is indigenous to southern Africa, mainly in South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, Swaziland and Zimbabwe, Namibia. According to Deutschländer , et al. [28] and Manning [29] M. zeyheri is prevalent in open, dry and bushveld woodlands. In South Africa, this plant is primarily found in Limpopo, Northwest, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu Natal, growing in forested areas, on rocky slopes and riverine areas [30]. M. zeyheri is a habitat and food source for numerous animal species, such as mammals, birds and insects. During spring or early summer, the tree produces small white flowers that are sweetly scented. Fruits of this tree are round or slightly elongated berries. Young berries are initially green and turn bright yellow-orange when ripe. These fruits are edible and consumed by people, monkeys and other animal species. This plant species is easily cultivated from seeds, usually in frost-free summer rainfall regions and is drought-resistant [31]. It can survive with small amounts of water and a few hours of exposure to sunlight. Figure 1. Geographical location of the study City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Gauteng Province, South Africa 2.2. Study Species This study investigated the ethnobotanical uses of Mimusops zeyheri (Figure 2 ), also called the Transvaal Red Milkwood, locally known as Mmupudu (Northern Sotho), Mububulu (Venda), Umpushane (Zulu) and Moepel (Afrikaans), is “an evergreen tree with a rounded crown”, belonging to the Sapotaceae family [ 27 ]. This large and shady tree is indigenous to southern Africa, mainly in South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, Swaziland and Zimbabwe, Namibia. According to Deutschländer, et al. [ 28 ] and Manning [ 29 ] M. zeyheri is prevalent in open, dry and bushveld woodlands. In South Africa, this plant is primarily found in Limpopo, Northwest, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu Natal, growing in forested areas, on rocky slopes and riverine areas [ 30 ]. M. zeyheri is a habitat and food source for numerous animal species, such as mammals, birds and insects. During spring or early summer, the tree produces small white flowers that are sweetly scented. Fruits of this tree are round or slightly elongated berries. Young berries are initially green and turn bright yellow-orange when ripe. These fruits are edible and consumed by people, monkeys and other animal species. This plant species is easily cultivated from seeds, usually in frost-free summer rainfall regions and is drought-resistant [ 31 ]. It can survive with small amounts of water and a few hours of exposure to sunlight 2.3. Data Collection Ethnobotanical data was collected between May and July 2023. This data was mainly collected through face-to-face interviews using semi-structured questionnaires [ 32 ] with the selected knowledgeable elders (key participants). Most of these interviews and discussions were held in Setswana, the language widely spoken in the study area. Before data collection, the researcher explained the purpose of the study to the participants and obtained their consent to record and use their information. Demographic information of the participants was captured, followed by information about the utilization of the plant, its distribution and contributions to the lives of local people. A total of 53 participants were interviewed, and each was visited twice to verify the information’s reliability. If what was said during the first visit regarding the utilization of M. zeyheri by any participant differed from what

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 4 of 17 was said during the second visit, the information was considered unreliable and had to be discarded. These follow-up visits also helped in getting additional information that was not mentioned during the first interviews. A photograph of M. zeyheri was presented to the participants to ensure that the researcher and the participant were talking about the same plant species Sustainability 2024 , 16 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18 Figure 2. A picture of a M. zeyheri tree with unripe fruits (Pictures by Maropeng Erica Matlala) 2.3. Data Collection Ethnobotanical data was collected between May and July 2023. This data was mainly collected through face-to-face interviews using semi-structured questionnaires [32] with the selected knowledgeable elders (key participants). Most of these interviews and discussions were held in Setswana, the language widely spoken in the study area. Before data collection, the researcher explained the purpose of the study to the participants and obtained their consent to record and use their information. Demographic information of the participants was captured, followed by information about the utilization of the plant, its distribution and contributions to the lives of local people. A total of 53 participants were interviewed, and each was visited twice to verify the information ’ s reliability. If what was said during the first visit regarding the utilization of M. zeyheri by any participant differed from what was said during the second visit, the information was considered unreliable and had to be discarded. These follow-up visits also helped in getting additional information that was not mentioned during the first interviews. A photograph of M. zeyheri was presented to the participants to ensure that the researcher and the participant were talking about the same plant species. 2.4. Sampling Technique As mentioned above, this study involved 53 participants who were purposefully selected. A total of 16 participants were from Soshanguve, 19 from Ga-Rankuwa and 18 from Mabopane. The study followed a purposive sampling method, a widely used tool for selecting participants in ethnobotany. Participants were chosen based on their knowledge and willingness to participate in the study. Only participants aged 18 years and above were included in the study because the study relied on the views of adults and knowledge experts. Individuals under 18 were excluded from the study because they are minors and, therefore, cannot consent. Participants were also chosen based on their ability to understand and communicate in English or Setswana. Figure 2. A picture of a M. zeyheri tree with unripe fruits (Pictures by Maropeng Erica Matlala) 2.4. Sampling Technique As mentioned above, this study involved 53 participants who were purposefully selected. A total of 16 participants were from Soshanguve, 19 from Ga-Rankuwa and 18 from Mabopane. The study followed a purposive sampling method, a widely used tool for selecting participants in ethnobotany. Participants were chosen based on their knowledge and willingness to participate in the study. Only participants aged 18 years and above were included in the study because the study relied on the views of adults and knowledge experts. Individuals under 18 were excluded from the study because they are minors and, therefore, cannot consent. Participants were also chosen based on their ability to understand and communicate in English or Setswana 2.5. Data Analysis Primary data collected during interviews was then converted into statistical measures using ethnobotanical indices, including Use Value (UV) and Frequency of Citation (RFC) These ethnobotanical indices are tools used to quantify qualitative data [ 33 ], and they focus on the “value and importance of a species” [ 34 ].

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 5 of 17 Use Value: Use Value marks the relative importance of the various uses of a plant species. It was calculated using a formula cited in the past, following the protocol of other scientists who have previously used the formula [ 35 ]. UV i = ∑ Ui N where “UV refers to the relative Use Value of the species, U is the number of uses mentioned by each participant, and N stands for the total number of participants who reported the species” [ 34 ]. Relative Frequency of Citation: RFC was utilized to illustrate the relative relevance or the local importance of the species [ 36 ] in the study region considering the categories of its use. This was calculated using the formula previously utilized [ 37 , 38 ]. It was determined using the following equation: RFC = FC N where RFC stands for Relative Frequency of Citation, FC represents the number of participants who cited the species and N refers to the total number of participants 2.6. Ethics Before conducting this study, ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Mpumalanga’s Research and Ethics Committee (UMP/Matlala/BScHons/12/06/2023). In this study, participants gave their informed consent to participate. They were made aware of all details of the study, its aims, objectives and the expectations from the researcher and participants. The consent form also provided that participation was voluntary and participants could withdraw from the study whenever they felt the need to do so. No one was pressured into participating in this study. This included any deception or persuasion intended to win someone’s trust Additionally, the study applied the anonymity principle, whereby participants’ identities remained confidential. All participants were treated with respect and dignity, and their opinions and views were respected. Participants were informed that there would be no immediate or direct benefit from the study. However, the study will benefit the community and, eventually, the world from the knowledge obtained from the participants 3. Results 3.1. Demographic Information 3.1.1. Age of the Participants As indicated in Figure 3 , participants were divided into four age groups and the majority (32%) of the participants who knew about M. zeyheri fell within the 51–65 age group, followed by those in the 66+ age group. Distinctively, the number of participants knowledgeable about M. zeyheri decreased among the younger participants. These results are similar to a previous study showing that elderly people are more informed about indigenous trees than young people [ 39 ]. This also implies that traditional knowledge about M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality is facing the risk of being eroded with the passing on of older community members, as some participants have also mentioned. According to Machaba [ 40 ], the adoption and utilization of indigenous knowledge and indigenous plants are declining among younger generations, and this could be due to the younger generation’s less interest in inheriting and using traditional knowledge. Additionally, modernization and the advancements in technology and science have now changed the social setup and lifestyle patterns of people [ 41 ]. Therefore, young people are abandoning their traditions and cultures.

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 6 of 17 3.1.2. Gender Distribution of Participants In terms of gender distribution, females (68%) were found to be more knowledgeable about M. zeyheri than males (32%) (Figure 4 ). According to Kainer and Duryea [ 42 ], women have extensive botanical knowledge and are skilled in collecting, processing and managing plants. This may be due to their participation in agricultural activities and cultural practices, their roles in traditional food systems and the management of resources [ 42 ]. This shows that women have more cultural awareness and knowledge about indigenous fruit trees These results are consistent with that of a previous study showing that women have more knowledge about the use of medicinal plants than men [ 43 ], although, in some studies, men are found to be more knowledgeable than women [ 40 , 44 , 45 ]. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18 and indigenous plants are declining among younger generations, and this could be due to the younger generation’s less interest in inheriting and using traditional knowledge. Additionally, modernization and the advancements in technology and science have now changed the social setup and lifestyle patterns of people [41]. Therefore, young people are abandoning their traditions and cultures. Figure 3. Age distribution of participants who were knowledgeable about M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Gauteng Province, South Africa. 3.1.2. Gender Distribution of Participants In terms of gender distribution, females (68%) were found to be more knowledgeable about M. zeyheri than males (32%) (Figure 4). According to Kainer and Duryea [42], women have extensive botanical knowledge and are skilled in collecting, processing and managing plants. This may be due to their participation in agricultural activities and cultural practices, their roles in traditional food systems and the management of resources [42]. This shows that women have more cultural awareness and knowledge about indigenous fruit trees. These results are consistent with that of a previous study showing that women have more knowledge about the use of medicinal plants than men [43], although, in some studies, men are found to be more knowledgeable than women [40,44,45]. Figure 4. Gender distribution of participants who were knowledgeable about M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Figure 3. Age distribution of participants who were knowledgeable about M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Gauteng Province, South Africa Sustainability 2024 , 16 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18 and indigenous plants are declining among younger generations, and this could be due to the younger generation’s less interest in inheriting and using traditional knowledge. Additionally, modernization and the advancements in technology and science have now changed the social setup and lifestyle patterns of people [41]. Therefore, young people are abandoning their traditions and cultures. Figure 3. Age distribution of participants who were knowledgeable about M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Gauteng Province, South Africa. 3.1.2. Gender Distribution of Participants In terms of gender distribution, females (68%) were found to be more knowledgeable about M. zeyheri than males (32%) (Figure 4). According to Kainer and Duryea [42], women have extensive botanical knowledge and are skilled in collecting, processing and managing plants. This may be due to their participation in agricultural activities and cultural practices, their roles in traditional food systems and the management of resources [42]. This shows that women have more cultural awareness and knowledge about indigenous fruit trees. These results are consistent with that of a previous study showing that women have more knowledge about the use of medicinal plants than men [43], although, in some studies, men are found to be more knowledgeable than women [40,44,45]. Figure 4. Gender distribution of participants who were knowledgeable about M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Figure 4. Gender distribution of participants who were knowledgeable about M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng Province, South Africa In this study, most participants received a formal education—73.6% had secondary education, and 13.2% reached the tertiary level. Only 3.7% did not receive formal education. Education plays a major role in the participants’ socioeconomic status and consciousness of environmental and health-related issues [ 46 – 48 ].

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 7 of 17 3.2. Ethnobotanical Uses of M. zeyheri 3.2.1. Nutrition Mashela and Mollel [ 49 ] assessed several indigenous plants as alternate crops in South Africa. These indigenous fruit trees were ranked based on their edible qualities in fresh and beverage form, and M. zeyheri came out amongst the top plants for its edible fresh fruit qualities M. zeyheri is mostly used as a food plant compared to other forms of use (Table 1 ). Its fruits have an “exceptionally high vitamin C content (90 mg/100 g)” [ 50 ], higher than that of several other indigenous and exotic fruits [ 51 ]. Thus, it could be used for economic and nutritional projects, crucial in poverty alleviation. Participants have indicated that the fruits of M. zeyheri can be consumed fresh from the tree or be dried and stored for later consumption [ 52 , 53 ]. These fruits can also produce jams, jellies, and alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages [ 9 , 52 , 54 ]. 3.2.2. Ethnomedicinal Uses The utilization of plants as a source of medicine traces back to the beginning of the history of human well-being [ 55 ]. Even today, many African populations still depend on traditional medicine and traditional healers as the primary defence against most diseases [ 56 ]. The utilization of medicinal plants can be done through consultation with traditional healers or self-medication. According to Latif [ 57 ] and Elgorashi, et al. [ 58 ], most African people consult traditional healers in preference to or in addition to Western medical doctors. People use M. zeyheri extracts for different purposes in traditional medicine (Table 1 ). Some participants have explained how these extracts are used to treat common medical conditions (Table 1 ), mostly problems older people can prescribe treatment for without consulting a healthcare provider. According to Mogale, et al. [ 59 ], some people use home remedies because of the lack of access to professional healthcare providers or financial difficulties. Participants mentioned that M. zeyheri was commonly used as a treatment for diabetes mellitus [ 60 , 61 ], ulcers [ 62 , 63 ], gastrointestinal-related issues [ 52 , 54 ], inflamed gums and toothaches [ 62 ], headaches, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) [ 64 ], erectile dysfunction, menstrual cramps, smelly discharge (gynaecological infections) [ 59 ] and childhood diseases such as hlogwana (signs of meningitis or redness (haemangiomas) at the nape of the neck) and khehlane , also referred to as “sunken chest” 3.2.3. Miscellaneous Uses M. zeyheri has other uses besides food or medicine (Table 1 ). Some participants have mentioned that the leaves are used for ethnoveterinary purposes to improve the sexual performance of livestock such as (goats) during the breeding season. The stem/trunk of the tree can be used for carpentry or to make furniture [ 65 ]. Some participants have mentioned that the tree can be used as firewood, an important feature of local plant use [ 59 ]. Although there is electricity, some people still use fire to cook and boil water for bathing. Some participants have also mentioned that M. zeyheri can be used to do cleansings. A cleansing is a symbolic act that is meant to purify family members from defilement by death and to help them cope with grief and loss [ 66 ]. Some days after the burial, usually seven days, the immediate family and close relatives must be cleansed from bad luck, impurity and “darkness”. The grieving family is washed, but the widow must mourn for at least a year before she can be cleansed.

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 8 of 17 Table 1. Ethnobotanical uses of M. zeyheri as mentioned by participants in the City of Tshwane Municipality, Gauteng Province, South Africa (N = 53) Plant Name Ethnobotanical Use References Plant Part Used Method of Preparation Administration N RFC M. zeyheri Edible fruit [ 50 , 51 , 62 ] Fruit The fruit is consumed fresh from the tree or can be dried or turned into a pulp and then mixed with water or milk to make beverages Orally 51 0.962 Shade [ 62 ] Whole tree - - 1 0.018 Firewood - Stem/trunk - - 2 0.037 Carpentry [ 67 ] Stem/trunk - - 1 0.018 Cleansing and purification - Barks, roots Infusion and decoction Orally and bathing 8 0.150 Treating diabetes mellitus [ 67 ] Leaves Decoction Orally 9 0.169 Treating ulcers [ 68 ] Leaves, roots, barks Decoction Orally 8 0.150 Treating gastrointestinalrelated issues [ 69 ] Leaves, roots, barks and seeds Infusion and decoction Orally 6 0.113 Treating gum inflammation, toothaches and tonsils [ 60 , 62 ] Roots and leaves Root decoction and leaf infusion For inflamed gums and toothaches, rinse the mouth with root decoction; gargle with leaf infusion for tonsils 5 0.094 Treating headaches - Roots Crush dried roots and burn them Crushed roots can be snorted like snuff, and if burned, inhale the smoke 3 0.056 Treating erectile dysfunction and drop/gonorrhea (STIs) [ 70 ] Leaves, seeds and roots Leaf infusion Seeds are dried, crushed and mixed food Root decoction Orally 4 0.075 Treating menstrual cramps and smelly discharge (gynecological infections) [ 71 ] Leaves Infusion Orally 1 0.018 Boosting immunity among humans - Roots Infusion Orally 1 0.018 Ethnoveterinary, to improve the sexual performance of livestock (goats) during the breeding season - Leaves Mix with leaves with animal feed Orally 1 0.018 Treating hlogwana - Leaves Leaves are burned to ashes Rub the ashes on an incision at the back of the child’s neck 1 0.018 Treating khetlane (sunken chest) and khubyana (umbilical cord) - Leaves Decoction Orally 1 0.018 N stands for the number of participants who mentioned the use. “-” stands for none. RFC = number of informants who mentioned the use = 51 and total number of informants participating in the survey = 53 > RFC = 51/53 = 0.962.

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 9 of 17 3.3. Plant Parts Used Different parts of M. zeyheri serve different purposes. Among the different parts, fruits (47%) were the most utilized part of the plant, followed by the leaves (22%), roots (18%) and bark (8%). The seeds (2%), stem (2%) and whole plant parts (1%) were less commonly used (Figure 5 ). These results resonate to those found in other studies in other parts of the world [ 72 , 73 ], which reported the predominant use of fruits. Most fruits are eaten raw after ripening, and others are dried and preserved for later use or to make beverages. In addition to being used as a food plant, M. zeyheri is also used as a medicinal plant for treating some common ailments. In this regard, the leaves were the commonly used part of the plant to treat those ailments. According to Ahmed [ 74 ] and Ghasemi, et al. [ 75 ], the utilization of leaves in herbal medicine is better for the endurance of medicinal plants compared to the bark and roots, which pose a serious threat to local plants because the excessive utilization of reproductive parts or roots for medicinal purpose can lead to a decline in plant populations [ 76 ]. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18 3.3. Plant Parts Used Different parts of M. zeyheri serve different purposes. Among the different parts, fruits (47%) were the most utilized part of the plant, followed by the leaves (22%), roots (18%) and bark (8%). The seeds (2%), stem (2%) and whole plant parts (1%) were less commonly used (Figure 5). These results resonate to those found in other studies in other parts of the world [72,73], which reported the predominant use of fruits. Most fruits are eaten raw after ripening, and others are dried and preserved for later use or to make beverages. In addition to being used as a food plant, M. zeyheri is also used as a medicinal plant for treating some common ailments. In this regard, the leaves were the commonly used part of the plant to treat those ailments. According to Ahmed [74] and Ghasemi, et al. [75], the utilization of leaves in herbal medicine is better for the endurance of medicinal plants compared to the bark and roots, which pose a serious threat to local plants because the excessive utilization of reproductive parts or roots for medicinal purpose can lead to a decline in plant populations [76]. Figure 5. Distribution of M. zeyheri plant parts used by the participants in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Gauteng province, South Africa. 3.4. Methods of Preparation and Administration Regarding the preparation method of M. zeyheri , decoctions (39%) and infusions (33%) were the most frequently reported methods that local people used (Figure 6). These results are comparable to what was found in other research [77,78], which revealed decoctions as the most frequently used preparation method. Due to their ease of preparation, decoctions are used as the main method of drug preparation in traditional healing systems [77]. Many indigenous cultures worldwide use them as their primary means of extracting the therapeutic properties of the plant [79 – 81]. Decoctions are prepared by boiling a certain part of the plant until the volume of the water is reduced by half [82]. This allows the thorough extraction of both waterand heat-soluble compounds, maximizing the therapeutic potential of the plant. Boiling the plant material in water also helps eliminate contaminants, making it safer than other preparation methods. Conversely, infusions involve soaking a plant part in hot water for some time, whether overnight or during the day [82]. Figure 5. Distribution of M. zeyheri plant parts used by the participants in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Gauteng province, South Africa 3.4. Methods of Preparation and Administration Regarding the preparation method of M. zeyheri , decoctions (39%) and infusions (33%) were the most frequently reported methods that local people used (Figure 6 ). These results are comparable to what was found in other research [ 77 , 78 ], which revealed decoctions as the most frequently used preparation method. Due to their ease of preparation, decoctions are used as the main method of drug preparation in traditional healing systems [ 77 ]. Many indigenous cultures worldwide use them as their primary means of extracting the therapeutic properties of the plant [ 79 – 81 ]. Decoctions are prepared by boiling a certain part of the plant until the volume of the water is reduced by half [ 82 ]. This allows the thorough extraction of both waterand heat-soluble compounds, maximizing the therapeutic potential of the plant. Boiling the plant material in water also helps eliminate contaminants, making it safer than other preparation methods. Conversely, infusions involve soaking a plant part in hot water for some time, whether overnight or during the day [ 82 ]. Regarding the mode of administration, most of the herbal preparations are taken orally (Table 1 ). Other herbal preparations are used for gargling or as mouthwash, for bathing or sniffing. Some people also burn a certain part of the plant and inhale the smoke. Furthermore, some parts are crushed and burned, and the ashes are applied to an incision. Several studies have reported the various application methods [ 77 , 78 ].

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 10 of 17 Sustainability 2024 , 16 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18 Figure 6. Ratio of M. zeyheri preparation methods employed by study participants in the City of Tshwane Municipality, Gauteng province. Regarding the mode of administration, most of the herbal preparations are taken orally (Table 1). Other herbal preparations are used for gargling or as mouthwash, for bathing or sniffing. Some people also burn a certain part of the plant and inhale the smoke. Furthermore, some parts are crushed and burned, and the ashes are applied to an incision. Several studies have reported the various application methods [77,78]. 3.5. Distribution of M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Municipality M. zeyheri occurs in open, dry and bushveld woodlands [28,29]. In South Africa, it is primarily located in the northern provinces, including Gauteng, where it grows in the wild or forested areas, on rocky slopes and in riverine areas [30]. Gauteng province is the economic and industrial heartland of South Africa [83,84]. It is home to Johannesburg, the largest city in the country, which is the centre for commerce, finance, and mining activities. Due to the many economic opportunities it offers, its population continues to grow at an alarming rate, resulting in urban expansion [85]. Urban expansion requires the construction of houses, roads, industries and commercial spaces, often leading to land clearing and the destruction of natural habitats for more space. Natural habitats, such as forests, are converted into urban areas, industries and agricultural land. Furthermore, these dramatic land-use changes contribute to deforestation and, ultimately, the loss of significant indigenous trees [86,87]. Participants also confirmed that deforestation for growing urbanisation, has a negative impact on the population of wild plants, including M. zeyheri , in the study area leading to decrease in numbers. Furthermore, most participants have mentioned that it has been many years since they last saw M. zeyheri . This provides the possibility that significant plant species in the area may be threatened due to anthropogenic factors including deforestation. Several studies [88 – 91] have articulated that factors such as population growth, urbanisation, and the unorganised expansion of informal settlement is occurring at the cost of the natural environment. Likewise, the rise in industrial activities, mining activities and lack of compliance to regulation has heavily contributed to deforestation, inevitably leading to habitat destruction. This loss of natural habitats has a fatal impact on biodiversity and may lead to the loss of important species in the near future [91]. The loss of important indigenous fruit trees directly impacts sustainability in many ways, affecting the ecological balance, local livelihoods, and cultural heritage. Indigenous fruit trees have adapted to local climate conditions and, therefore, have a better chance of enhancing more sustainable agro-systems, combating land degradation and conserving Figure 6. Ratio of M. zeyheri preparation methods employed by study participants in the City of Tshwane Municipality, Gauteng province 3.5. Distribution of M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Municipality M. zeyheri occurs in open, dry and bushveld woodlands [ 28 , 29 ]. In South Africa, it is primarily located in the northern provinces, including Gauteng, where it grows in the wild or forested areas, on rocky slopes and in riverine areas [ 30 ]. Gauteng province is the economic and industrial heartland of South Africa [ 83 , 84 ]. It is home to Johannesburg, the largest city in the country, which is the centre for commerce, finance, and mining activities. Due to the many economic opportunities it offers, its population continues to grow at an alarming rate, resulting in urban expansion [ 85 ]. Urban expansion requires the construction of houses, roads, industries and commercial spaces, often leading to land clearing and the destruction of natural habitats for more space. Natural habitats, such as forests, are converted into urban areas, industries and agricultural land. Furthermore, these dramatic land-use changes contribute to deforestation and, ultimately, the loss of significant indigenous trees [ 86 , 87 ]. Participants also confirmed that deforestation for growing urbanisation, has a negative impact on the population of wild plants, including M. zeyheri , in the study area leading to decrease in numbers. Furthermore, most participants have mentioned that it has been many years since they last saw M. zeyheri . This provides the possibility that significant plant species in the area may be threatened due to anthropogenic factors including deforestation. Several studies [ 88 – 91 ] have articulated that factors such as population growth, urbanisation, and the unorganised expansion of informal settlement is occurring at the cost of the natural environment. Likewise, the rise in industrial activities, mining activities and lack of compliance to regulation has heavily contributed to deforestation, inevitably leading to habitat destruction. This loss of natural habitats has a fatal impact on biodiversity and may lead to the loss of important species in the near future [ 91 ]. The loss of important indigenous fruit trees directly impacts sustainability in many ways, affecting the ecological balance, local livelihoods, and cultural heritage. Indigenous fruit trees have adapted to local climate conditions and, therefore, have a better chance of enhancing more sustainable agro-systems, combating land degradation and conserving the natural plant heritage [ 49 , 50 ]. For instance, M. zeyheri contributes significantly to biodiversity by providing several animal species with food and habitat [ 62 ]. It is also believed to improve soil fertility and prevent soil erosion with its fairly compact roots [ 62 ]. This is a good contribution toward environmental sustainability as this can reduce the costs of agricultural production. It is very crucial to recognize these values and implement proper conservation strategies to ensure a more sustainable future. Likewise, a holistic

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 11 of 17 approach is needed to ensure a continuous supply of nutrition and food security in the future, as it cannot be fulfilled from a single source [ 92 ]. 3.6. Potential Socio-Economic Contribution of M. zeyheri to the Participants in the City of Tshwane Municipality Indigenous fruit trees such as M. zeyheri possess an enormous potential to contribute to the well-being of locals by providing nutritional, medicinal and economic benefits [ 50 , 62 ] However, despite their potential, these trees often fail to significantly impact local communities such as those in the City of Tshwane Municipality, as some participants have mentioned 3.6.1. Food/Nutrition Security Participants in the study area indicated that M. zeyheri does not contribute to food security. One of the primary reasons for this is the change in the dietary patterns and preferences of the local communities. Urbanization and globalization have influenced the cultural and dietary habits of local people, causing indigenous fruit trees to lose their appeal [ 93 – 95 ]. The introduction of exotic fruits and processed foods has led to the decreased consumption of indigenous fruits [ 96 ]. Therefore, this change in consumption patterns undermines the role of indigenous fruit trees such as M. zeyheri can play in food and nutritional security. Furthermore, participants have also pointed out that M. zeyheri does not contribute to food security because of its scarcity within their communities, which is caused by deforestation and urbanization. As a result, they must rely on other fruits that are readily available to them 3.6.2. Medicinal Contributions Indigenous trees have long been recognized as invaluable resources in local communities, providing various medicinal benefits [ 40 , 50 , 74 ]. Most have curative properties, forming an important part of healthcare systems worldwide, especially in rural communities. In this study, M. zeyheri is used treat common health conditions. However, the majority of participants rarely use it, due to alienation from conventional medicine due to increase urbanization and modernization, which has greatly reduced reliance on traditional practices and beliefs [ 93 , 94 ]. Young people may be less inclined to use traditional medicine because they are exposed to globalized healthcare practices. Furthermore, some people may also choose modern medicine over traditional due to a better understanding of its mechanisms and its proven efficacy. Access to modern healthcare often comes at a cost. However, in some cases, government subsidies or health insurance make it more affordable than traditional remedies, often requiring buying specific herbs or consulting traditional health practitioners 3.6.3. Economic Contributions Local people can generate income, create employment and improve their livelihood by selling fruits and other products from indigenous trees [ 97 , 98 ]. However, market dynamics and economic pressures can limit the impact of indigenous fruit trees. For instance, due to a preference for exotic fruits for M. zeyheri , the lack of market or consumer demand can discourage communities from cultivating or harvesting these trees [ 93 ]. This, therefore, affects its potential contribution to local communities’ economy. Another reason indigenous fruit trees may not contribute to the local economies is that the economic benefits from selling indigenous fruits might not be as strong as those from cash crops, pushing communities to prioritize other food crops or fruit [ 99 ]. Participants have also indicated that M. zeyheri does not provide them with any economic advantages due to the declining and scarce occurrence of these trees in their communities.

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 12 of 17 3.7. Importance of M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane Municipality 3.7.1. Use Value (UV) To evaluate the relative importance of M. zeyheri uses, UV was calculated. Use Value can vary based on the cultural, economic and ecological significance of a plant species to a community. The Use Value scores generally range from as low as 0 to a higher value, usually around 1 to 5, although it is possible to have higher values [ 100 – 102 ]. Higher Use Value suggest a relatively high level of usefulness and utilization [ 101 , 102 ]. It indicates that the plant is utilized for various purposes within a community, such as food, medicine and rituals Contrarily, if a plant has a low UV (near 0), it suggests it has few use reports. In this study, the UV of M. zeyheri was found to be 1.98 (Table 2 ). This suggests that the plant has moderate importance or utility in the community [ 103 ]. It indicates that the plant is used, but not extensively Table 2. Illustration of how Use Value (UV) was determined Number of uses mentioned by a participant 1 2 3 4 5 Number of participants who mentioned this number of uses 21 18 10 2 2 Total number of participants 53 UV = (1 × 21)/53 + (2 × 18)/53 + (3 × 10)/53 + (4 × 2)/53 + (5 × 2)/53 = 1.98 3.7.2. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) Relative Frequency of Citation also provides information about the importance and status of the plant species in the studied region. It describes the importance of a plant species with reference to participants who cited the plant species [ 55 ]. According to [ 104 , 105 ], a high RFC value indicates traditional knowledge is retained and transmitted smoothly among local people. Additionally, a high RFC may imply the plant species is easily available in the community, suggesting its constant and extensive use [ 82 , 106 ]. In this study, an overall RFC of 1.932 was calculated (Table 1 ). A Use Value of 1.98 suggests that M. zeyheri holds significant cultural and traditional importance in the study area 3.8. Limitations of the Study This study focused on a specific geographic region: the City of Tshwane municipality in Gauteng Province. This is a limitation because the study’s findings cannot be taken as a general representation of the ethnobotanical information regarding M. zeyheri in the whole Province and South Africa. This study area is also a limitation because the province modernizes quickly, and people try to move with the times. Therefore, it was quite difficult to find people with indigenous knowledge. Some community members have never seen indigenous fruit trees in their areas. It would have been better to conduct the research in less urbanized areas (i.e., rural areas). Additionally, this study only concentrated on the views of participants knowledgeable about M. zeyheri in the City of Tshwane municipality It would have been better to have a larger sample size, however, the researcher could only identify 53 participants due to time constraints. Some of the people who knew the studied species wanted to be paid for the time they were going to be interviewed and for the information they would share. This was an obstacle because the researcher could not access the valuable information that these people could have provided 4. Conclusions and Recommendations This ethnobotanical study evaluates the indigenous knowledge of the utilization of M. zeyheri and how it contributes to local communities in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng province, South Africa. Findings revealed that there are people in the area who still retain substantial indigenous knowledge. However, elders seemed to be

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Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 1410 13 of 17 the real caretakers of this knowledge compared to the younger generation. Therefore, this knowledge is at risk of being lost with the passing on of knowledge holders, the younger generation’s lack of interest, the impact of modernization and poor indigenous knowledgesharing systems. Furthermore, results show that M. zeyheri might be threatened in the City of Tshwane as a result of the dramatic land use changes. This also affects its utilization and the indigenous knowledge associated with it. Therefore, this study documented the uses of M. zeyheri and also raised possible concerns about the conservation of this tree species and its associated knowledge in the study area This study highlights the importance of recognizing, learning and documenting indigenous knowledge. Therefore, governments should encourage young people to learn traditional indigenous knowledge by integrating it into school curriculums. The processing of M. zeyheri has a huge untapped potential for food security, income generation through creating self-employment and business development. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out more research on M. zeyheri for its possible cultivation on a large scale to ensure that it contributes to food and income security. Furthermore, the government needs to conduct awareness campaigns whereby knowledge holders, including local residents, are empowered with knowledge regarding M. zeyheri to change the negative perceptions that the community has regarding the use of these indigenous plant species Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.E.M. and W.O.-M.; methodology, P.T.N.; software, M.E.M.; validation, W.O.-M., and P.TN.; formal analysis, M.E.M. and P.T.N.; investigation, M.E.M.; resources, S.N.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M.E.M.; writing–review and editing, P.T.N. and S.N.M.; supervision, W.O.-M., P.T.N. and S.N.M.; project administration, S.N.M.; funding acquisition, W.O.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript Funding: This research was funded by Water Research Commission, grant number 2023/2024-01331 and the APC was funded by University of Mpumalanga Institutional Review Board Statement: The research was revised by the Institutional Review Board with ethic approval number UMP/Matlala/BScHons/12/06/2023 Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study Data Availability Statement: Data are available on request from the corresponding author of the manuscript Acknowledgments: We are grateful to our participants for their willingness to be part of this study We extend our sincere gratitude to L. B. Sibudugu for creating the map Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results References 1 Cheikhyoussef, A.; Embashu, W. Ethnobotanical knowledge on indigenous fruits in Ohangwena and Oshikoto regions in Northern Namibia J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2013 , 9 , 34. [ CrossRef ] 2 Gunara, S.; Sutanto, T.S.; Cipta, F. Local Knowledge System of Kampung Naga: A Study to Investigate the Educational Values of Indigenous People in Transmitting Religious and Cultural Values Int. J. Instr 2019 , 12 , 219–236. [ CrossRef ] 3 Dweba, T.; Mearns, M.A. Conserving indigenous knowledge as the key to the current and future use of traditional vegetables Int J. Inf. Manag 2011 , 31 , 564–571. [ CrossRef ] 4 Liu, C.; Gu, M. Protecting traditional knowledge of Chinese medicine: Concepts and proposals Front. Med 2011 , 5 , 212–218 [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 5 Milburn, M.P. Indigenous nutrition: Using traditional food knowledge to solve contemporary health problems Am. Indian Q 2004 , 28 , 411–434. [ CrossRef ] 6 Kuhnlein, H.V.; Chotiboriboon, S. Why and how to strengthen indigenous peoples’ food systems with examples from two unique indigenous communities Front. Sustain. Food Syst 2022 , 6 , 808670. [ CrossRef ] 7 Olowo, S.F.; Omotayo, A.O.; Lawal, I.O.; Ndhlovu, P.T.; Aremu, A.O. Ethnobotanical use-pattern for indigenous fruits and vegetables among selected communities in Ondo State, Nigeria S. Afr. J. Bot 2022 , 145 , 501–511. [ CrossRef ]

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: De Necker, Wells, Ghana, Muir, Mohammed, Ali, Sugimoto, Wentzel, Lindahl, New, Ayob, Wiley, Pharm, Siddique, Hoffman, June, India, Poku, Singh, Ebert, Nkosi, Haddad, Tefera, Yadav, Signorini, Pretty, Hughes, Rah, Hermann, Gordon, Barthel, Thomas, Ethiopia, Kamboj, Clin, Arshad, Sons, Sci, Goldberg, York, Borelli, Gov, Mayes, Veld, John, Amjad, Jewels, Hunter, Lawrence, Maps, Muja, Benin, Piredda, September, Mekonnen, Asia, Henriksson, Stringer, Cardone, Kashmir, Street, Azam, Capone, Monte, Pacific, Holt, Pac, Lall, Khwela, Acacia, Energy, Azad, Ghosh, Mangena, Dossou, Baa, Lett, Vorster, Roos, Woody, Smart, Alderson, Debs, Louw, Nxumalo, Roberts, Bilali, Deutsch, Steyn, Serv, Beltrame, Woodhead, Black, Cotton, Driouech, Bruschi, Venter, House, Kraemer, Kruger, Kaplan, Lyngdoh, Oliveira, Robinson]

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