Ethnobotany in Iturbide, Nuevo León

[Full title: Ethnobotany in Iturbide, Nuevo León: The Traditional Knowledge on Plants Used in the Semiarid Mountains of Northeastern Mexico]

Citation: Estrada-Castillón, E.; Villarreal-Quintanilla, J.Á.; Cuéllar-Rodríguez, L.G.; March-Salas, M.; Encina-Domínguez, J.A.; Himmeslbach, W.; Salinas-Rodríguez, M.M.; Guerra, J.; Cotera-Correa, M.; Scott-Morales, L.M.; et al Ethnobotany in Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n: The Traditional Knowledge on Plants Used in the Semiarid Mountains of Northeastern Mexico Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su 141912751 Academic Editor: C. Ronald Carroll Received: 22 June 2022 Accepted: 20 September 2022 Published: 6 October 2022 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Copyright: © 2022 by the authors Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/) sustainability Article Ethnobotany in Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n: The Traditional Knowledge on Plants Used in the Semiarid Mountains of Northeastern Mexico Eduardo Estrada-Castill ó n 1 , Jos é Á ngel Villarreal-Quintanilla 2 , Luis Gerardo Cu é llar-Rodr í guez 1 , Mart í March-Salas 3 , Juan Antonio Encina-Dom í nguez 2 , Wibke Himmeslbach 1 , Mar í a Magdalena Salinas-Rodr í guez 4 , Jacqueline Guerra 1 , Mauricio Cotera-Correa 1 , Laura Magdalena Scott-Morales 1 , Rebecca Jane Friesen 5 , Patricio Garza-Zambrano 6 , Jos é Ram ó n Ar é valo-Sierra 7 , Homero Garate-Escamilla 1 , Maritza Guti é rrez-Guti é rrez 1 and Tania Vianney Guti é rrez-Santill á n 1, * 1 Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Aut ó noma de Nuevo Le ó n, Carretera Nacional Linares-Ciudad Victoria, km 145, A.P. 41, Linares 6700, Mexico 2 Departamento de Bot á nica, Universidad Aut ó noma Agraria Antonio Narro, C.P., Buenavista, Saltillo 25315, Mexico 3 Plant Evolutionary Ecology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, 60438 Frankfut am Main, Germany 4 Herbario Jorge Marroqu í n, Facultad de Ciencias Biol ó gicas, Universidad Aut ó noma de Nuevo Le ó n, Av. Pedro de Alba, Cd. Universitaria, San Nicol á s de los Garza 66455, Mexico 5 Elk Island National Park, 54401 Range Rd. 203, Fort Saskatchewan, AB T 8 L 0 V 3, Canada 6 Capital Natural, A.C., Av. Ricardo Margain Zozaya 440, Valle del Campestre, San Pedro Garza Garc í a 66265, Mexico 7 Departamento de Bot á nica, Ecolog í a y Fisiolog í a Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 Islas Canarias, Spain * Correspondence: tvgutierrez_santillan@yahoo.com.mx Abstract: Iturbide is in the northeast of Mexico and has a rich native and exotic flora; however, there are no ethnobotanical records, therefore, it requires attention in the documentation of traditional knowledge and practices of its botanical resources. In 2021, twelve field trips were carried out, applying 110 semi-structured interviews. Plant samples were collected, identified and deposited in an herbarium. We used the Chi-square test to compare the anthropocentric categories concerning others reported in Mexico. To determine the cultural importance, three ethnobotanical indices were applied (UVI, ICF and FL). We recorded 250 species with ethnobotanical implications associated with 121 genera and 83 families, including 140 native and 110 exotic species. The most common plant families were Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Fabaceae. The main categories of uses were: ornamental, medicinal and food. The species with the highest UVI values were Lepidium peruvianum , Ocimum basilicum and Salvia rosamrinus . The multifunctionality of the native and exotic flora demonstrates the extensive knowledge associated with botanical resources. For example, the role of ornamental plants, with a direct impact on human well-being, the resilience of healers and traditional inhabitants by using different species for the treatment of various ailments or indigenous edible plants in the daily diet Keywords: ethnobotanical indices; ethnobotanical uses; native and exotic species; local community; semi-structured interviews; natural resources in mountainous areas; traditional knowledge and management; ornamental plants 1. Introduction Worldwide, ethnobotany is a discipline with extensive contributions from its beginnings to the present with work on all continents, highlighting remote regions and different indigenous groups. It is surprising how much ethnobotanical information is available, e.g., a study in the Kathua region of the Himalayas describes the knowledge and use of Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751. https://doi.org/10.3390/su 141912751 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 2 of 43 121 plant species by various indigenous groups, i.e., Duggars, Paharis, Punjabis and Gujjars; who, furthermore, share their ancestral knowledge [ 1 ]. These results are strengthened by other research in the same region of Kupwara, where there is a high diversity of medicinal plant use, highlighting the transmission of traditional medical knowledge directly from the elderly to the young [ 2 ]. Another recently explored region is Pakistan in the Shiwalik Range, where its population depends directly on wild floras for their livelihood [ 3 ]. It is the same subsistence case for the Nauka (language in danger of extinction), settled in the Bering Strait, Russia, who, in addition to depending on wild plants, were forced to change their ancestral knowledge and practices due to armed conflicts [ 4 ]. Other areas of the planet and their diverse cultures contribute with spectacular ethnobotanical works, e.g., the groups originating in Australia, the Bunganditj, who have deep traditional medicinal knowledge; in addition, they collaborate with researchers to design protocols for prospecting the use of their medicine [ 5 ]. One of the zones with the greatest ethnobotanical records is the Mapuche region, Patagonia, Argentina, where 505 medicinal flora species are reported, highlighting an interesting mix of native and exotic species [ 6 ]. Another of the most diverse regions of the planet is the Amazon, where 274 species of medicinal native plants are reported for a single community in the Brazilian Region [ 7 ]. Relating the richness and diversity of worldwide ethnobotany, we can say that Mexico is one of the countries with a deep ethnobotanical tradition, that is, the human groups established in the different ecoregions have developed a wide perception, knowledge and use of plants [ 8 , 9 ]. Mexican ethnobotanical documentation estimates the knowledge and exploitation of between 5000 and 7000 plant species, among which a wide range of native and introduced species stand out, using different parts of them, many with strong cultural and multifunctional roots [ 9 ]. Mexican ethnobotany, as well as in other regions of the world, reflects socio-ecological patterns of a complex socio-cultural dimension, highlighting the understanding the forms of transmission of ethnobotanical traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) especially analyzed the flow of traditional knowledge and practices between the different generations of local inhabitants [ 10 ], at the level of inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic communities [ 11 ] or gender, where women stand out for their deep local ethnobotanical knowledge [ 12 ]. Other approaches are those related to determining the cultural importance of plants among people who live in different ecosystems and with different degrees of biodiversity [ 13 ], the analysis of influence generated by environmental changes [ 14 ], as well as the anthropocentric characterization of the utilization of plants [ 15 ], other studies focus or understanding the complex systems of traditional medicine and food [ 9 ]. These socio-ecological patterns consist of a set of local knowledge and practices specific to each cultural group, defined as: Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK [ 16 , 17 ]). The TEK is integrated into three main conceptual fields: (a) perception = kosmos (set of beliefs associated with plants, e.g., ceremonial and ritual uses), (b) cognitive = corpus (sets of knowledge about plant resources, e.g., flock nomenclature, knowledge about biological and ecological aspects) and (c) practical = praxis (set of utilization and/or exploitation practices, e.g., categories of use, domestication [ 18 ]). Ethnobotanical studies in the country have contributed to the development and consolidation of global ethnobotanical knowledge, e.g., Hunn [ 19 ] with the Tzeltal Indians, where he proposes one of the bases for the study of traditional classification. Later, he reaffirms his work, studying the lifestyles of the Zapotec Indians of San Juan Gbee, where he documents more than 700 names of plants in the indigenous language [ 20 ]. Novel ethnobotanical research is currently continuing, e.g., Nabhan and collaborators [ 21 ] have shown the role that plants play in a socio-ecosystem and its relevance for human health in the face of climatic stress. During the monsoons (rains in the Sonoran Desert where the Comcaa’c indigenous people live) when terpenes are released from the desert plants, in which more than 60 species have been identified with 115 biogenic volatile oils, they contribute to human health by improving sleep patterns, regulating emotional hormones, improving digestion and reducing depression and anxiety, preventing oxidative stress diseases [ 21 ].

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 3 of 43 The distribution of indigenous groups in Mexico is concentrated in the central, southern and south-southeastern areas, mainly where there is a high diversity of geoforms, climates, ecosystems and a high biological diversity; the established indigenous groups have a profound knowledge of their biocultural diversity and their ethnobotanical resources [ 8 ]. Some indigenous groups settled in the northern region of the country, grouped in the northwestern area. Therefore, in the northeast region, there are only the Kipapo and Negros Mascogo settlements (migrants from the United States settled in the mid-1800 s [ 22 ]). In general, the north of Mexico is characterized by being a wide extension of arid and semiarid zones, forming one of the most diverse desert regions on the planet [ 23 ], due to its local environmental heterogeneity, mainly in the northeast region; in this area, there are hundreds of mestizo rural communities, which, like the indigenous communities, have a deep knowledge of their ethnobotanical biocultural diversity [ 13 , 24 – 27 ]. This is due in part to the fact that rural populations tend to live more isolated, using natural resources of their surroundings as medicine, food, ornamental, firewood or domestic tools [ 24 – 27 ]. The ethnobotany in the north of the country and particularly in the northeast zone is as relevant as that documented in other regions, even in indigenous areas and when comparing different types of ecosystems where the richness of species is varied [ 13 ]. Unfortunately, this knowledge is at risk due to socio-cultural factors, such as migration [ 28 ] and lack of interest in younger generations, contrary to what has been documented for some indigenous people [ 2 ]. Other factors are associated with changes in economic systems [ 29 ]; to socio-ecological factors, such as changes in traditional medicine practices and local food systems, so it is necessary to safeguard important taxa as part of the biocultural heritage food [ 30 ]. In addition, there are changes in agroecological systems, where there is a threat and loss of related wild crops [ 31 ]. The degradation of ethnobotanical TEK is even associated with environmental changes and loss of biological diversity [ 32 ]. A respite in the face of the notable loss of ethnobotanical biocultural wealth is given through the documentation and local revaluation of knowledge and practices of plants [ 1 – 7 ], where the new generations and women have an important role [ 10 , 33 ]; through linking communities with the academic sector, generating regulation and bioprospecting protocols [ 5 ]. The main objectives of this ethnobotanical research are: (a) to know the diversity of flora taxa with ethnobotanical potential; (b) to compare the diversity of plants with ethnobotanical implications with those reported in other regions of northeastern Mexico; (c) to document the knowledge and traditional uses of native and exotic flora; (d) analyze the traditional medical knowledge of local plant species, their forms of administration and parts used; through the application of ethnobotanical indices: Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), Use Value Index (UVI) and Fidelity Index (FI). All this would help preserve the ethnobotanical knowledge and traditional practices of plant taxa used in this area by their community, facilitating environmental education and the sustainable development of Iturbide in the face of the increasing loss of ecosystems, a low economy in the area and migration of the young population 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Site In general, the relief of Mexico is among the most rugged on the planet [ 23 , 34 ]. This particular orography is one of the factors that confer the existence of diverse and unique flora in many parts the country. The northern region ecologically is characterized by large extensions of arid and semiarid zones, with heterogeneous mosaics of high floristic diversity [ 34 ]. Geographically, the state of Nuevo Le ó n is characterized by its extensive lowland, high plains and mountains that, in some cases, can reach up to 3600 m above sea level [ 35 ], where the local population is mestizo [ 36 ]. Our study area, Iturbide, is a small municipality located in the semiarid mountains in the southern reaches of the state of Nuevo Le ó n [ 36 ] with a landscape that comprises 85% rugged surface and 15% flat areas. The two main vegetation types found in the municipality of Iturbide are semiarid scrubland and oak-pine forest,

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 4 of 43 both of them hosting a very rich flora with high levels of endemism. The Sierra Madre Oriental (state of Nuevo Le ó n) contains almost 269 endemic plant species [ 37 ]. Almost 60 of these species are considered exclusive of the municipality of Galeana, adjacent to Iturbide. Among these species, it highlights some with high levels of endemicity, belonging to the families Asteraceae ( Ageratina , Erigeron and Verbesina ), Cactaceae ( Mammillaria and Turbinicarpus ) and Fabaceae ( Dalea [ 38 ]). Most of the native and exotic floras in this area are widely used by the local community for medicinal, ornamental, food, forage and construction purposes [ 13 , 24 – 27 ]. According to the 2010 National Population and Housing Census, approximately 3600 people inhabit Iturbide Municipality, with 95% living in the town of Iturbide and the remainder in surrounding rural areas. On average, half of the residents of Iturbide Municipality are male and half are female [ 36 ]. The primary local language is Spanish The main economic activities in Iturbide are agriculture and livestock, which highlights the relevance of the study of natural resources in this area. The main crops are corn, wheat and oats, as well as fruit harvesting, principally apples, plums, apricots, quince and peaches [ 36 ]. Local artisans produce wooden furniture, embroidery and other handmade products, thereby using natural resources for their creations. The federal government offers subsidized training for the development of technical skills such as baking, sewing, carpentry and blacksmithing. Additionally, there is federal financial support for disabled people. However, in Iturbide, there are relatively few inhabitants aged 17–25 years. This is because the young people of Iturbide have begun to emigrate to larger cities and regions with higher access to education and diverse employment opportunities that offer higher salaries [ 36 ]. The origin of its population is related to the establishment of cattle ranches in 1800; its current population is totally mestizo, proud to belong to the “northern culture”. Education levels are high compared to other municipalities in the entity; there is basic, upper secondary and higher education, highlighting the School of Forest Sciences and the Astronomical Observatory of the Autonomous University of Nuevo Le ó n. In recent years, tourism has been promoted as an economic alternative, mainly associated with ecotourism due to its natural and scenic beauty Iturbide is located in south-central Nuevo Leon, 24 ◦ 23 0 N 99 ◦ 59 0 W (Figures 1 and 2 a) It is placed in the Sierra Madre Oriental and it comprises mountains, extensive valleys and canyons, as well as plateaus above a 1200-meter altitude. Iturbide is located in the dry part of the mountains on the leeward side. Its climate has two variants: at lower elevations (1200 m), it is semi-warm, while at higher elevations (2400 m), the climate is cold, temperate and subhumid. The annual precipitation ranges from 300 mm to 950 mm, with a mean precipitation of 705 mm. The driest months are from December to March; the rainiest months are from July to September. The average annual temperature ranges between 12 and 18 ◦ C, with the hottest months being April and May and the coldest from November to January [ 38 ]. There are two permanent rivers in the municipality of Iturbide: The San Antonio River, which crosses the municipality from north to south, and the La Muralla River, located at the extreme north. The highest parts of the area with a temperate climate are covered by oak and oak-pine forest, while the driest parts shelter microphyllous scrublands [ 38 , 39 ].

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 5 of 43 Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 5 of 61 Figure 1. Location of the study area, Iturbide, Nueva León, Mexico. 2.2. Field Work and Interviews A total of twelve field trips were made for plant identification and collection. Two previous exploratory visits were made in June 2021. The first was held to explore the plant communities adjacent to Iturbide and collect plant specimens of the native flora representative of the area, and the second one was to interview people (see below) regarding local plants and their uses. We obtained the permission of local authorities to collect plants in public areas and talk with private property owners for the same purpose [13]. From July to December 2021, 12 field trips for plant species collection were carried out. All species recorded were photographed to create an ethnobotanical database containing all information and data gathered. The taxonomic identification of plants was based on the study of the floras of the state of Nuevo León, as well as monographs of families and genera distributed in this area [38,39]. When possible, the interviewed individuals Figure 1. Location of the study area, Iturbide, Nueva Le ó n, Mexico 2.2. Field Work and Interviews A total of twelve field trips were made for plant identification and collection. Two previous exploratory visits were made in June 2021. The first was held to explore the plant communities adjacent to Iturbide and collect plant specimens of the native flora representative of the area, and the second one was to interview people (see below) regarding local plants and their uses. We obtained the permission of local authorities to collect plants in public areas and talk with private property owners for the same purpose [ 13 ]. From July to December 2021, 12 field trips for plant species collection were carried out. All species recorded were photographed to create an ethnobotanical database containing all information and data gathered. The taxonomic identification of plants was based on the study of the floras of the state of Nuevo Le ó n, as well as monographs of families and genera distributed in this area [ 38 , 39 ]. When possible, the interviewed individuals accompanied

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 6 of 43 us on field trips to identify species in situ. All collected and identified specimens were stored at the CFNL herbarium of the Faculty of Forest Sciences, Autonomous University of Nuevo Le ó n, M é xico. The collection number belongs to Eduardo Estrada (EE), and the identified species were corroborated with herbarium specimens [ 40 ]. Based on ethnobotanical studies previously carried out in the northeast of the country, we focused our interviews on housewives, shepherds, bricklayers, elementary teachers, business owners, midwives and healers older than 30 years [ 24 ]. The ages of the interviewees ranged from 32 to 84 years. Each interviewee had lived continuously in the area for at least 20 years. To maximize data collection and allow interviewees to speak freely, interviews were semi-structured [ 41 ]. Four questions were asked to all interviewed: (1) What is the name of the plant? (2) What are the uses you know of this plant? (3) What parts of the plant are utilized (root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, flower, fruit)? (4) How is the product/utensil prepared (raw, cooked, roasted, ground)? [ 42 , 43 ]. All interviews were conducted with the prior informed consent of each of the informants ( http://ethnobiology. net/codeofethics/ , accessed on 7 June 2021 [ 42 ]). During the interviews, we showed pictures of the regional plant species found to additionally confirm species identification by local people (ethnographic technique of visual stimuli [ 43 ]). All interviews were recorded in Spanish. In Figure 2 b,c, we can observe the work team and the relationship that was established with the informants to obtain the ethnographic information 2.3. Data Analysis In order to know the ethnobotanical significance of Iturbide with respect to other localities of Mexico studied (Nuevo L é on, Coahuila, Baja California, Puebla and Michoac á n), a Chi-square tests was applied using PAST software [ 44 , 45 ]. The Chi-square test is used by means of contingency tables to examine the relationship between two or more categorical, non-numerical variables. It is also used to explore the distribution of a categorical variable among different samples [ 44 ]. This test works with frequencies (observed and expected), and its calculation is based on the degrees of freedom and the level of significance to determine which hypothesis is accepted (the null or the alternate). The null hypothesis is rejected when the number of known plant species at other sites is similar to that of Iturbide ( p < 0.05). To quantitatively analyze the ethnobotanical information collected, three indices were applied: (1) Use Value Index (UVI [ 13 ]); (2) the informant consensus factor (ICF [ 46 ]) and (3) Fidelity Level (FL [ 47 ]), all commonly used in the ethnobotanical research [ 1 , 2 , 13 ]. The UVI analyzes the local relevance of each of the ethnobotanical species; it is obtained applying the formula: UVI = Σ U i /n, where U i = corresponds to the number of uses known by each informant for the species i , and n = the total sample number ethnographic (interviewees). The IFC evaluates the relative importance of the ethnobotanical species within each medicinal category; is calculated as: IFC = nur − nt/nur − 1, where the subindex nur = frequency of medicinal mention for the species i , and nt = sum of the species mentioned for each of the medicinal categories. The premise in this index indicates that the species that obtain the highest values are those that are considered by the informants as more effective in the treatment of certain diseases. Finally, through the Fidelity Index, the relative importance of each species i in a specific medicinal category is calculated, with respect to the total degree of consensus among the informants. Calculated as: FL(%) = Ip/Iu(100), where Ip = total number of interviewees who independently indicated the use of species i to treat the disease particular, and Iu = corresponds to the frequency of informants who mention the species i to counteract a specific disease within a category of specific medicinal use.

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 7 of 43 Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 7 of 61 Figure 2. Ethnobotanical work in Iturbide, Nuevo León, Mexico. NOTE: Prior and informed consent was obtained during the application of the interviews for the taking of photographs, as well as the authorization of informants photographed for publication [42,43]. ( a ) Local square of the municipality of Iturbide, ( b , c ) work team during the application of the interviews, ( d ) sale of ornamental plants through the streets of various colonies of Iturbide, ( e ) caring for ornamental plants in private gardens by residents, ( f ) taking photographs of ornamental plants for their taxonomic identification, ( g ) kitchen table used as a support to cut fruits, vegetables and meats for food preparation. Figure 2. Ethnobotanical work in Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n, Mexico. NOTE: Prior and informed consent was obtained during the application of the interviews for the taking of photographs, as well as the authorization of informants photographed for publication [ 42 , 43 ]. ( a ) Local square of the municipality of Iturbide, ( b , c ) work team during the application of the interviews, ( d ) sale of ornamental plants through the streets of various colonies of Iturbide, ( e ) caring for ornamental plants in private gardens by residents, ( f ) taking photographs of ornamental plants for their taxonomic identification, ( g ) kitchen table used as a support to cut fruits, vegetables and meats for food preparation.

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 8 of 43 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Taxa Diversity, Origin and Life Forms A total of 250 taxa with ethnobotanical importance from 121 genera and 83 families were recorded in this research (Table 1 ), of which are 140 native and 110 introduced (Appendix A ). The diversity of native species is mediated by the environmental heterogeneity associated with the topography, a fundamental characteristic in richness and composition of plant communities [ 38 ], and leads to contrasting vegetation patterns between northern and southern areas [ 37 ]. While the diversity of introduced taxa is associated with anthropocentric needs [ 25 – 27 ]. Table 2 shows contrasting physiognomic vegetation among northeastern, northwestern, central and southern Mexico, where ethnobotanical research have been carried out: these sites are characterized by heterogenous scrublands and oak-pine forests. However, relatively similar vegetation was found in northwestern (Baja California [ 48 ]) and southern Mexico, as, for instance, in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (Michoac á n [ 49 ]). Table 1. Richness of ethnobotanical taxa known and used by residents of Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n, Mexico. These plants were separated between eudicots, monocots, conifers and allies and ferns and allies Eudicots Monocots Conifers and Allies Ferns and Allies TOTAL Families 65 13 3 2 83 Genera 82 31 6 2 121 Species 204 34 10 2 250 Table 2. Diversity of taxa with ethnobotanical applications recorded in northeastern (NE), northwestern (NW), central-west (CW) and southern (S) Mexico Locations Families Genera Taxa Habitats NE, Mexico Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n 83 121 250 Oak-pine, desert scrub NE, Mexico Cumbres de Monterrey National Park (CMNP), Nuevo Le ó n [ 26 ] 69 170 240 Oak-pine forest, desert scrub NE, Mexico Rayones, Nuevo Le ó n [ 27 ] 91 228 252 Mainly desert scrub, oak-pine forest NE, Mexico Bustamante, Nuevo Le ó n [ 25 ] 66 176 218 Desert scrub, oak-pine forest NE, Mexico Cuatro Ci é negas, Coahuila [ 13 ] 57 132 158 Desert scrub NW, Mexico Sierra Juarez, Baja California [ 48 ] 27 39 48 Desert homogeneous scrubland CW, Mexico Monarch Butterfly Biophere Reserve, Michoac á n [ 49 ] 65 132 213 Oak-pine, pine forest S, Mexico Zapotitl á n de las Salinas, Puebla [ 50 ] 79 219 298 Different scrublands NOTE: Column two represents the sites located in the northeast region and other regions of the country, where other ethnobotanical works have been carried out, with which we have compared our results in terms of the number of taxonomic riches (families, genera and species) Our results affirm that rural mestizo communities also have a deep ethnobotanical tradition, compared to research carried out in inhospitable regions and with different indigenous groups; e.g., Shigh and collaborators [ 1 ] report 121 species, 105 genera and 53 families in the Himalayas. Silva et al. [ 7 ] report 274 ethnobotanical taxa used exclusively in traditional medicine for inhabitants of the Brazilian Amazon. However, a greater effort is still needed in the ethnobotanical documentation of extensive rural mestizo areas to compare data such as those reported for the Mapuche in Patagonia (505 species of medicinal and edible flora [ 6 ]). The difference in plant biocultural diversity among the above mentioned regions was significant at every taxonomic level: at the family level (X 2 d.f.=7 = 24.23, p < 0.001), genus level (X 2 d.f.=7 = 103.25, p < 0.001) and species level (X 2 d.f.=7 = 133.60, p < 0.001). Regions with heterogeneous vegetation communities (Iturbide, Cumbres de Monterrey National Park (CMNP [ 26 ]), Rayones [ 27 ], Bustamente [ 25 ], Cuatroci é negas [ 13 ] and Zapotitl á n [ 50 ]) contain more plant species with ethnobotanical uses than regions having relatively more homogeneous vegetation such as coniferous, oak-pine forests (Michoac á n [ 49 ]) or scrublands (Baja California [ 48 ]; Table 2 ).

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 9 of 43 We found that the most abundant and species-rich plant families in Iturbide are Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Cactaceae (Figure 3 a); the same pattern of taxonomic families is predominant in the northern, central and southern regions of Mexico [ 38 , 39 ], as well as in other regions of the world, where the two main reported families are Asteraceae and Fabaceae [ 1 , 2 , 6 , 7 ]. Furthermore, it is common for the abundance of plants in taxon to correlate with the number of ethnobotanical uses identified; therefore, the families with the highest species richness are constantly those with the highest frequency of mention in ethnobotanical studies [ 46 ]. The enormous number of ethnobotanical applications registered in Iturbide is evidenced by the great variety of taxa used for ethnobotanical purposes, especially in small and rural areas far from large cities; using plant species for diverse ethnobotanical utilizations is a strongly rooted tradition, greatly extended in the day-to-day needs of some communities [ 3 , 7 , 9 , 13 ]. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 9 of 61 Figure 3. ( a ) Best represented families, in terms of genera (in yellow) and species (in green), of ethnobotanical importance in the study site (Iturbide, Nuevo León, Mexico), ( b ) main ethnobotanical uses of plants registered in the flora, according to the interviewed, ( c ) number of mentions of the plant part used to heal ills and diseases by the interviewed individuals and ( d ) identified methods by the interviewed for the medical use of the sampled species in Iturbide, Nuevo León. Of the ethnobotanical exploitations registered in Iturbide, 140 are native while 110 are exotic (Appendix A). The introduced plants represent a high value, as in other zones of the northeast [13], but lower than in other remote regions [1,6]. Herbaceous taxa were the most abundant (120), followed by shrubs (58), trees (55) and succulents (17). The relatively cool climatic conditions allow the presence of varied floras most of the year. The streets, parks and sidewalks are predominantly dominated by evergreen vegetation and many herbaceous plants that flower even in the coldest months (December and January). The most common uses of the plant species in Iturbide are ornamental, medicinal, food, forage, wood and fuel (Figure 3 b). These patterns of plant harnessing are similar to other works from the northeast region [13,24–27]. We observe that, unlike other sites in Mexico, ornamental plants are highly relevant [13], displacing the medicinal and edible categories in second and third place (Figure 3 b). This new phenomenon of cultural appreciation of ornamental plants may be related to the need to mitigate solar radiation in gardens and public parks, as well as in homes [13]. While, on the other hand, it is currently known that plants in desert regions of northwestern Mexico provide health benefits in the face of climatic stress, generating a feeling of euphoria and relief among the population. An effect associated with the monsoons (torrential summer rains) and the release of terpenes from plants, these biogenic organic compounds are considered to help mitigate oxidative stress diseases, improve sleep quality, stabilize emotional hormones, improve digestion, increase mental clarity and reduce depression and anxiety [18]. Therefore, the inclusion of ornamental species in the ethnobotanical cultural baggage of Iturbide and Figure 3. ( a ) Best represented families, in terms of genera (in yellow) and species (in green), of ethnobotanical importance in the study site (Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n, Mexico), ( b ) main ethnobotanical uses of plants registered in the flora, according to the interviewed, ( c ) number of mentions of the plant part used to heal ills and diseases by the interviewed individuals and ( d ) identified methods by the interviewed for the medical use of the sampled species in Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n Of the ethnobotanical exploitations registered in Iturbide, 140 are native while 110 are exotic (Appendix A ). The introduced plants represent a high value, as in other zones of the northeast [ 13 ], but lower than in other remote regions [ 1 , 6 ]. Herbaceous taxa were the most abundant (120), followed by shrubs (58), trees (55) and succulents (17). The relatively cool climatic conditions allow the presence of varied floras most of the year. The streets, parks and sidewalks are predominantly dominated by evergreen vegetation and many herbaceous plants that flower even in the coldest months (December and January).

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 10 of 43 The most common uses of the plant species in Iturbide are ornamental, medicinal, food, forage, wood and fuel (Figure 3 b). These patterns of plant harnessing are similar to other works from the northeast region [ 13 , 24 – 27 ]. We observe that, unlike other sites in Mexico, ornamental plants are highly relevant [ 13 ], displacing the medicinal and edible categories in second and third place (Figure 3 b). This new phenomenon of cultural appreciation of ornamental plants may be related to the need to mitigate solar radiation in gardens and public parks, as well as in homes [ 13 ]. While, on the other hand, it is currently known that plants in desert regions of northwestern Mexico provide health benefits in the face of climatic stress, generating a feeling of euphoria and relief among the population. An effect associated with the monsoons (torrential summer rains) and the release of terpenes from plants, these biogenic organic compounds are considered to help mitigate oxidative stress diseases, improve sleep quality, stabilize emotional hormones, improve digestion, increase mental clarity and reduce depression and anxiety [ 18 ]. Therefore, the inclusion of ornamental species in the ethnobotanical cultural baggage of Iturbide and other regions of northeastern Mexico may have a similar effect to that reported for the northwestern part of the country, since the climatic and vegetation conditions are very similar [ 13 , 24 , 38 , 39 ]. In addition, species such as Sambucus canadensis , Baccharis salicifolia , Prosopis glandulosa and Larrea tridentata are shared between both regions and reported in both investigations [ 18 ]. 3.2. Ethnobotanical Uses 3.2.1. Ornamental The individuals interviewed showed a greater knowledge of the ornamental utilization of plants, recognizing 132 taxa, corresponding to 52.8% of the total, concerning the medicinal ones, with only 100 (Appendix A ). This phenomenon differs from the results of other ethnobotanical studies conducted in Nuevo Le ó n [ 26 , 27 ] and other regions of Mexico [ 10 , 48 , 50 ]. Currently, the importance of ornamental plants is documented, for example, in Cuatroci é negas, Coahuila where they are important in gardens and public squares [ 13 ]. As in Cuatroci é negas, in Iturbide, the presence of ornamental plants is noticeable in streets and private properties. In addition, on weekends, plant vendors come to the area to sell exotic herbaceous and shrubby species, which is why the inhabitants of Iturbide use introduced ornamental species more, instead of native ones (Figure 2 d–f). This phenomenon is associated with the adaptation of the taxa to the environmental conditions of the place, as well as the care that the owners provide them. Therefore, ornamental plants have a socio-cultural relevance on the well-being of local inhabitants through landscape beauty [ 51 ]. In addition, very possibly, as in the Sonoran Desert, they provide well-being in human health through the release of biogenic organic compounds [ 18 ]. Among the exotic species, herbaceous plants (37) presented the highest frequency of mention, followed by trees (22) and shrubs (19; Appendix A ). The most abundant herbaceous species were Hypoestes phyllostachya , Dianthus caryophyllus , Cymbopogon citratus , Vinca minor , Zantedeschia aethiopica , Asparagus setaceus , Canna indica , Impatiens hawkeri , Tulipa gesneriana , Pelargonium hortorum and Lavandula angustifolia . The most abundant shrubs were Lagerstroemia indica , Alcea rosea , Cascabela thevetioides , Lonicera japonica , Euphorbia milii and Hibiscus syriacus . Among the most frequently mentioned ornamental exotic trees in Iturbide were Schinus molle , Cupressus lousitanica , Cupressus sempervirens , Thuja occidentalis , Sapium sebiferum , Punica granatum , Ficus carica and Prunus persica . In private gardens, it is common also to see orange, lemon, baretta, peach and apricot trees as ornamental species. These taxa are commonly found also in many other areas and, importantly, are being used in botanical gardens for ethnobotanical purposes [ 52 ]. Among the most common herbaceous native species appreciated ornamentally were Beloperone gutatta , Spathiphyllum wallisii , Dahlia coccinea , Zinnia elegans , Commelina coelestis , Plumbago pulchella and Nephrolepis exaltata . The most common shrubs were Rhus trilobata , Tecoma stans , Euphorbia pulcherrima , Bauhinia purpurea and Parthenocissus quinquefolia Many of these taxa have similar ethnobotanical implications in other regions of Mexico or in other regions of northern Latin America [ 53 ]. The most common native trees

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 11 of 43 with ornamental use in Iturbide were Acer negundo , Juniperus flaccida , Carya illinoinensis , Juglans major , Magnolia grandiflora , Morus celtidifolia , Pinus cembroides , Casimiroa pringlei , Salix nigra , Fraxinus americana and Quercus virginiana . Of the ornamental species, 45 have other types of exploitation such as food, medicine and construction material (Appendix A ). Some of these species hold multiple ethnobotanical uses, such as Matricaria recutita and different species of Opuntia , Quercus , Prunus , Citrus and Capsicum . According to interviewees, ornamental herbaceous taxa are specially selected for their physiognomy. The selection of ornamental shrubs and trees is based on their general appearance, life form, maximum height and forms of exploitation, such as providing shade in cities, food, firewood and construction material (Appendix A ). Some shrubby or ornamental tree species with succulent stems are used as living fences, notably the columnar cacti [ 54 ]. 3.2.2. Medicinal Medicine was the second relevant anthropocentric category in the study, with 100 species, representing 40% of the total flora, found. A value was raised considering that it is a mestizo region in comparison with the number of species reported for indigenous regions [ 1 , 2 , 7 , 49 ] The mentioned taxa are used to cure or alleviate different illnesses. At least thirty-six different plant families have some medicinal application, with Asteraceae (sixteen genera and sixteen species), Lamiaceae (twelve genera and thirteen species), Euphorbiaceae (five genera and five species) and Cactaceae (three genera and six species), being the most represented, the first families reported around the world [ 1 , 2 , 7 ]. These medicinal families are recurrent in different areas of Mexico [ 9 , 55 ]. In Iturbide, the plants are used in their entirety for some medicinal purposes (Figure 3 c). Leaves from 67 different species are frequently used for medical purposes, of which 64 are native herbaceous species. Among the most common native herbaceous species mentioned by interviewees were Equisetum laevigatum , Monarda citriodora , Chrysactinia mexicana , Hedeoma drummondii , Eryngium heterophyllum , Artemisa ludoviciana , Euphorbia dentata and Tagetes lucida . The most common exotic herbaceous species in local medicine were Matricaria recutita , Ocimum basilicum , Allium sativum , Ruta graveolens and Zingiber officinale (Appendix A ) The stems of some shrubby species are frequently used as medicine, including Baccharis salicifolia , Flourensia cernua , Croton suaveolens , Jatropha dioica and Leucophyllum frutescens A total of twenty taxa of trees (eleven native, and nine exotic) have medicinal properties, with the leaves, bark and fruits being the most used components. Among the most commonly mentioned medicinal native tree species were Carya illinoinensis , Juglans major and Persea americana , while the most mentioned exotic species were Azadirachta indica , Moringa oleifera , Eucalyptus camaldulensis , Eriobotrya japonica , Citrus limon and Citrus sinensis The fruits of twelve taxa (seven native and five exotic) are used to heal several ailments. The most frequently used were Cordia boisieri , Crataegus mexicana , Ficus carica , Citrus spp and Capsicum annuum . It is noteworthy that although only one species and one variety ( Capsicum annum var glabriusculum ) are mentioned, there are several forms of this species with varying flavors and levels of spice (Appendix A ) which interviewees identified by their common names, such as chili piqu í n, Japanese chili , serrano pepper and jalapeño pepper (Appendix A ). Some dry fruits (pecans), including Carya illinoinensis , and the immature fruits of Sida rhombifolia and Malva parviflora are used to treat varicose veins and digestive discomfort. Species with medicinal fruits are commonly cultivated in private gardens, developing a dual role of utilization. Some of these are seasonal, as in the case of tejocote ( Crataegus mexicana ), n í spero ( Eriobotrya japonica ) and guayaba ( Psidium guajaba ), although they can be dried or prepared as a syrup and stored for later use. Except for Eriobotrya fruits, medicinal fruits are collected and sold in the local market. The medicinal application of inflorescences is highly correlated to the use of stems and leaves, more frequently in herbaceous and aromatic species. Stems and leaves are almost always combined and boiled [ 55 ], particularly those of Gnaphalium viscosum , Chenopodium ambosioides , Grindelia inuloides , Tagetes lucida , Hedeoma drumondii and Turnera diffusa [ 24 ]. The medicinal roots used in Iturbide all come from exotic plant taxa and are mainly used boiled or raw to

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 12 of 43 alleviate digestive ailments. These include Lepidium peruvianum , Raphanus sativus , Aloe vera and Zingiber officinale . The root of the native plant Eryngium heterophyllum is used to dissolve kidney stones and to treat hemorrhoids, diabetes and high cholesterol. Other native medicinal plants of Juglandaceae, Juglans (one species) and Carya (two species) are used as hair dye and also as antifungal and antibacterial agents; such antibacterial properties are proven [ 56 ]. Other medicinal treatments, involving the use of bracts and fruit shells, the boiled bracts of Bougainvillea , are frequently used to treat angina pain and cough, but they also have antibacterial and antidiabetic properties [ 57 ]. Lemon and orange peels, along with the leaves, are boiled and the solution is used to relieve chest pains, colds, coughs and throat pains. Among the most common methods for the preparation of medicinal plants in Iturbide, boiling, grinding, creating poultice and consuming raw are highlighted, the same use with same results; these applications are similar to others reported in scrub and desert regions in Mexico (Figure 3 d, Appendix A [ 58 , 59 ]). The most frequent illnesses mentioned by the interviewees were digestive, respiratory, nervous, endocrine and circulatory ailments (Table 3 ). This result correlates with the classification of diseases and related health problems recorded by the World Health Organization [ 60 ]. Digestive and respiratory ailments are mainly cured with boiled leaves in the form of infusion. Almost all medicinal taxa recorded in Iturbide are prepared this way, and the majority of them are herbaceous and shrubby species belonging to the families Asteraceae ( Gnaphalium viscosum , Grindelia inuloides , Flourensia cernua , Matricaria recutita and Tagetes lucida ), Euphorbiaceae ( Croton suaveolens , Euphorbia dentata and Tragia ramosa ), as well as almost all genera of Lamiaceae, Allium cepa , A. sativum , Moringa oleifera , Eucalyptus camaldulensis , Purshia plicata , Verbena canescens and Larrea tridentata On the other hand, raw leaves, stems, roots and fruits are the second most frequent way to alleviate symptoms. The most commonly harvested taxa are, Apium graveolens , Eryngium heterophyllum , Kalanchoe daigremontiana , Rorippa officinale , Lophophora williamsii , Opuntia ficus - indica , Jatropha dioica , Psidium guajaba and Larrea tridentata Apium graveolens roots are used also against the toxicity of trace elements [ 61 ]. Kalanchoe diagremonaitana has antitumor, antihistamine and anti-inflammatory properties [ 62 ]. In addition to treating arthritis and muscle pain in the back and neck, Lophophora willaimsii has compounds that produce hallucinations and cognitive impairment. In addition to hair dye and skin antifungal agent uses, it is mentioned that the roots of Jatropha dioica are crushed and placed directly on the gums as a preventive method in tooth loss Table 3. The diseases mentioned by Iturbide’s informants were classified into 10 categories. Each category presents a variation in the frequency of mention (nt); therefore, there are different values in the Informant Consensus Factor (IFC) index Category of Use (System) Number of Species Mentioned (nt) nur FIC Digestive (XI) 29 259 0.89 Respiratory (X) 20 249 0.92 Skin and subcutaneous (XII) 17 38 0.57 Endocrine (IV) 16 74 0.79 Circulatory (IX) 13 73 0.83 Nervous (VI) 13 99 0.88 Musculoskeletal (XIII) 11 38 0.73 Infectious (I) 8 61 0.88 Genitourinary (XIV) 6 57 0.91 Ophtalmic (VIII) 3 22 0.90 In many cases, medicinal plant parts are used raw and do not require preparation; they are only disinfected with chlorine and crushed or ground, then applied as poultices to heal superficial wounds. They are also chewed and consumed to control blood sugar concentration, cholesterol and high blood pressure. Some local people mentioned that they

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 13 of 43 consume garlic, onion, coriander and parsley periodically to reduce the risk of diabetes and high blood pressure. Raw stems of several Cactaceae are very commonly used to heal endocrine illnesses, digestive issues and low cholesterol; they are prepared by washing the cladodes (stems), removing the thorns, grinding the material and drinking the solution The milled pulp ( Lophophora ) is frequently mixed with alcohol and marijuana to be used as a cataplasm to heal arthritis and muscle pain in the limbs, a very common method of healing in Mexican culture [ 13 , 59 ]. A variety of plant families are prepared as poultices, including most of their parts, used in different ways: boiled, ground and raw. In Iturbide, one of the most common genera prepared in this way is Amphipterygium , whose bark is boiled and applied as a cataplasm to serve as an antibiotic. Its bark is used to prevent cytotoxic proliferation, as an antibacterial agent [ 63 ] and to heal gastritis and stomach pains. The leaves of plants in the genus Buddleja are used as a cataplasm to heal epidermic wounds; these taxa have photoprotective effects on the skin, due to their production of secondary phenolic metabolites [ 64 ]. Opuntia and Cylindropuntia stems are commonly used as forage, food and poultice in Iturbide, but also to treat diarrhea A solution of Lophophora stems mixed with alcohol is common in rural areas to treat arthritis in northern Mexico, but is also traditionally used as a hallucinogen [ 65 ]. Similarly, female Cannabis inflorescences are mixed with alcohol and used as a poultice to relieve arthritis and muscle pains, and the dried inflorescences are also smoked for recreational purposes [ 13 ]. The former use may be closely related to the fact that the contents of flavonoids, cannabinoids and terpenoids reportedly have anti-inflammatory, anticancer and neuroprotective properties [ 66 ]. Leaves from Thymus genus are frequently used to relieve respiratory and gastrointestinal ailments and skin infections. However, currently, derivatives from its essential oils are more widely used due to their reported antimicrobial and anticancer effects [ 67 ]. In Iturbide, Melia has properties to cure gastrointestinal symptoms, and Melia leaves in cold water have also been reported to cure diarrhea in South Africa [ 68 ]. Similarly, raw or boiled Lycopersicon fruits are used as a poultice for their antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties derived from its peptides. Parts of Jatropha dioica are crushed and milled, and the resulting pulp is applied directly to the hair, due to its black dyeing property; it is also used to prevent hair loss, control dermic head infections (dandruff) and as a shampoo. Its antifungal properties are due to the presence of alkaline esters and certain diterpenes such as citlalitrione, jatrophatrione, jatropholone A and jatropholone B present in stems and roots [ 69 ]. Traditional medicinal use of Plectranthus coleoides occurs from the drying, grinding with glycerine and spreading on the chest and nostril to treat respiratory problems such as chest pain and runny nose, among others. Other species of this genus also have a medicinal application to treat toothache, dermatitis, throat pain, antiseptic, vomiting, nausea, ear infections and burns. Blending Capsicum annuum fruits in water generates a relatively spicy solution that is consumed to treat coughs and extract phlegm. Other studies have reported that it is effective as a circulatory stimulant and that can be also used as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and gastric anticancerigen [ 70 ]. The plant parts of some taxa are used completely dry; the most commonly used in Iturbide are Larrea tridentata to treat foot odor and three species of Lamiaceae, Monarda citriodora , Hedemoa drummnodii and Poliomintha longiflora , whose dry leaves and branches are put under the pillow at night to reduce the effects of insomnia Monarda citriodora is also used to treat wounds and skin infections, regulate body temperature and prevent against diseases of the respiratory system Hedeoma drummondii is used to treat infections and sore throats (Appendix A ). 3.2.3. Food The edible category was the third most common plant exploitation in Iturbide with 87 species (45 native and 42 exotic species; Appendix A ), a considerable number with respect to other ethnobotanical works [ 3 , 6 ]. Most consumed plants are herbaceous (fortyeight species), followed by trees (twenty-one), shrubs (fourteen) and succulents (four) The parts of the plant with the greatest use are the fruits followed by leaves, seeds,

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 14 of 43 roots and flowers. The most frequently consumed fruits belong to introduced species such as Mangifera indica , Ananas comosus , Citrullus lanatus , Cucumis melo , Cucurbita ficifolia , Ficus carica , Malus domestica , Prunus spp. and Citrus spp. The fruits of several common native taxa are also used, including Celtis pallida , Carica papaya , Cucurbita moschata , Persea americana and Physalis philadelphica . Several of these species are widely used as food and are also traded in food markets in Mexico [ 9 , 10 , 20 ], as well as in many other parts of the world Many of the fruit trees that are commonly consumed in northeastern Mexico [ 10 , 13 , 25 – 27 ] are part of relatively large gardens, which also contain various applications, such as providing shade, beauty and food. This pattern is observed in Iturbide where fruit trees such as Punica granatum , Prunus persica , Malus domestica , Citrus limon , Ficus carica , Persea americana and Eriobotrya japonica are common, and all species are exotic (Appendix A ). Other taxa with an edible exploitation are Apium graveolens , Spinacea oleracea , Coriandrum sativum , Origanum mejorana and Petroselinum crispum ; similar uses have been reported in Italy [ 71 ]. The leaves of two exotic taxa are frequently used raw as ingredients in salads or are cooked with other species Portulaca mundula (verdolaga) and P. oleracea P. mundula is very common in Iturbide where it grows in abandoned farm fields and on sidewalks and roadsides P. oleracea is considered a “medicinal food” due to its richness in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids [ 72 ]. Rorippa officinale (berro) grows in urban riparian systems and is consumed raw or cooked. It is suggested that its consumption can potentially reduce the probability to get cancer [ 73 ] due to its antioxidant activity [ 74 ]. Seeds are the third most commonly consumed plant part in Iturbide as food. The most important seed-producing species in the area are Phaseolus vulgaris (beans) and Zea mays (corn). These important food products are part of Mexican diets nation-wide, which have been cultivated and consumed since pre-Hispanic times [ 75 ]. The bean, of Mesoamerican origin [ 76 ], is considered the most important domesticated legume in America, and together with Zea and Cucurbita constitutes the widespread food triad of the Mesoamerican culture Phaseolus vulgaris is currently distributed throughout the globe, occupying other cultural roles; for example, in the Republic of Benin, it also has religious, forage and medicinal uses, the medicinal of which is derived from the leaves and seeds [ 77 ]. In Morocco, Zea mays is also commonly used as a medicinal species since this species has been popular for curing diseases of the genitourinary system [ 78 ]. The seeds of Pinus cembroides are commonly used as food and as an ingredient in various regional candies. Historically, the seeds of pinyon pine (piñonero) have been used by indigenous tribes of the southern USA and northern Mexico. They are rich in protein, low in starch and contain seven of the nine essential amino acids; they are especially rich in cystine and tryptophan [ 79 ]. Other introduced taxa whose seeds are widely used as a complementary part of the diet belong to the Leguminosae and Poaceae families Lens culinaris , Pisum sativum , Cicer arietinum and Avena sativa have been historically used as food [ 80 ], and they are widely consumed around the world [ 81 , 82 ]. These seeds function as nutraceuticals, e.g., A. sativa , which contains several groups of psychoactive phytochemicals that have been shown to improve cognitive function [ 83 ]. In addition to seeds, the roots of several taxa are used in meal preparation, especially Solanum tuberosum (papa), Ipomoea batas (camote), Pachyrhizus erosus (j í cama) and Daucus carota (zanahoria). There are several Neotropical legumes with edible roots including Vigna , Pediomelum , Apios and Pachyrhizus . Of these, only P. erosus , a species native to Mexico, is widely cultivated in gardens or for export. It is cultivated throughout Mesoamerica, with a strong introduction in southeast Asia [ 84 ]. The potato Solanum tuberosum is an important food for the people of Iturbide; it is grown, but is mainly bought in stores and supermarkets. Two native root species are used to make alcoholic beverages: Dasylirion and Agave . In addition, the sap of Agave americana is widely harnessed in Mexico for the extraction of “agua miel” (honey water, raw) or syrup or honey (cooked [ 85 ]). Dasylirion is utilized for the manufacture of “sotol” (alcoholic beverage) and its leaves in many parts

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 15 of 43 of Mexico are used for making handicrafts; in the specific case of Rar á muri women for crafting baskets [ 86 ]. Within the Cactaceae family, the flowers of two native species of Yucca , Y. treculeana and Y. filifera , are collected seasonally and cooked with eggs to increase the flower’s protein content [ 87 ]. These are also cooked with chili, tomato and onion to prepare a classic regional dish from the northeast of the country [ 25 – 27 ]. The stems of the native Echinocactus platyacanthus (biznaga burra) are cooked with white and brown sugar to make crystallized candies; this plant also has ornamental and medicinal uses [ 88 ] and serves as fodder for goats [ 25 – 27 ]. These practices are currently prohibited and regulated by Mexican legislation (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010). The stems of Opuntia are widely utilized for food or forage Opunita ficus - indica is a cactus of cultural and economic importance due to its multiplicity of uses, typical of its long history of domestication [ 89 ]. Many other Opuntia species produce sweet fruits (tunas) which are sold in markets throughout Mexico and worldwide [ 90 ]. 3.2.4. Forage Given that cattle raising and farming are common occupations in Iturbide, ranchers cultivate or collect forage to feed domestic livestock instead of purchasing it. Forage almost always consists of native plants when livestock is grazed in open areas, compared with a mixed diet of native and exotic species when livestock are kept within town limits We registered at least 30 forage taxa where the consumed material consists mainly of leaves and fruits. Several Cucurbitaceae including Cucurbita mochata , C. pepo , C. ficifolia , Cirtullus lanatus , Cucumis melo and C. anguria are utilized for food; also, the dry leaves and fruit peels of them are given to the cattle as fodder, and the same practices are carried out in Yucat á n, Mexico ( Cucunis anguria , common name: meloncillo [ 91 ]. Another example is the use of two cultivated species of Cucurbita ( C. pepo and C. mochacta ), which are an important part of traditional farming polyculture systems called milpas (the milpa is a farming system made up of the so-called triad: corn, beans and squash). These species help control erosion and maintain moisture by limiting solar penetration through the canopy and reducing the growth of weeds. The most common way to feed livestock is after harvesting the fruit when it is common to introduce directly (cows, pigs, sheep or goats) to feed on plant debris Several Poaceae, such as Sorghum bicolor , S. halepense and Bouteloua curtipendula , are among the most common forage species used to feed cattle Sorghum halepense has become a pest species in both natural and agricultural areas and due to its abundance, it is often used as forage in Iturbide. It is considered the sixth weed with the highest rate of invasion to different crops in more than 50 countries, affecting millions of hectares [ 92 ]. In Iturbide, this species is not a pest since the climate is not suitable for its development. Other forage species are Carya illinoinensis and Juglans major, which are collected after falling from trees and given to cattle. On the other hand, taxa frequently found in abandoned farmlands and used as grazing areas are Chenopodium ambrosioides and Amaranthus palmeri (both Amaranthaceae), Helianthus annuus and Taraxacum officinale (both Asteraceae), Turnera diffusa (Turneraceae), Acalypha hederacea (Euphorbiaceae) and Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae) Other multipurpose shrubs are widely used also as forage. The leaves of Rhus virens , Calliandra conferta , Prosopis glandulosa and Vachellia farnesiana constitute an important part of the diet of domestic animals in the region. The dry or fleshy fruits of several native shrubs and trees such as Cordia boissieri , Diospyros palmeri , Quercus virginiana , Quercus canbyi , Quercus polymorpha , Prosopis glandulosa and Vachellia farnesiana (Appendix A ) are used as seasonal forage. The fruits of other taxa such as Diospyros spp. are used in similar ways in Ethiopia [ 93 ]. The acorns from Quercus spp. are used as food in Slovakia [ 94 ], and at least seven other species of Cordia have edible fruits and are utilized in the same way in Mexico [ 95 ]. Two species of Cactaceae, that are important in the diet of cattle, are the native Opuntia ficus - indica and O. lindheimeri . Both are cut with a machete and their thorns are scorched to provide easy, efficient, cheap and nutritious livestock feed Opuntia spp.

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 16 of 43 are extremely useful livestock forage, providing digestible energy, vitamins and water; although they are mainly used for cattle, this species is also used as forage for pigs 3.2.5. Construction and Fuel Of the 30 taxa ethnobotany harnessed for construction, 80% are trees. A total of 27 of these species are native, with the exception of Cupressus lousitanica , C. sempervirens and Thuja occidentalis . Only four shrub species, Rhus virens , R. trilobata , Agave americana and A aff scabra, are used for construction. The wood of the first two species is mainly used to make tools for use in the home or for agricultural activities such as handles for brooms, machetes, rakes and hoes. The huge, dried peduncles (called quiote) of Agave inflorescences are used as gates on rural properties, livestock guards and clothesline supports. Since the houses and buildings in Iturbide are entirely made of concrete, and the gas is utilized as a heat source, wood is used mainly to build storage rooms, columns and ceilings for rest rooms, corrals and chairs. In northern Mexico, wood is stored to be used as fuel for barbecuing and to heat water for bathing. Wood from conifers ( e.g., Pinus , Cupressus , Juniperus and Thuja ), Fabaceae ( Prosopis and Vachellia ) and oak ( Quercus ) is the most frequently used as a heat source due to their hardness and durability. In Turkey, the wood of conifers and oaks such as Cupresus , Juniperus , Pinus and Quercus are used also as firewood and to make fences [ 96 ]. The wood of Helietta parvifolia is very hard, durable and resistant to pests, which makes it excellent for use as fence posts that last up to 20 years [ 25 , 27 ] Prosopis laevigata and Vachellia farnesiana are among the 33 multipurpose species; their branches are used for fuelwood and fodder. The stems of Fouquieria splendens are cut, allowed to dry for several weeks and used to make pens for chickens or pigs; some species of this genus also have ornamental uses because of the beauty of their flowers. DNA sequencing of coprolites has shown that our prehistoric ancestors also consumed Fouquieria plants [ 97 ]. The wood of Carya is used to make chairs, tables and benches. Its wood is excellent for use in tool handles because of its strength and shock resistance. This species is considered the most important nut tree native to North America. Its nuts are also a high-quality food source due to their high protein and fat contents 3.2.6. Fibers The exploitation of natural fibers has decreased dramatically in northeastern Mexico Interviewees in Iturbide noted that it is not economically lucrative to sell goods made from natural fibers. Very few people work with plant fibers as a permanent job, but those who do use Agave lechuguilla , A. americana , Yucca carnerosana and less commonly, Hechtia podantha The fiber collection and handling process remain the same as it was 50 years ago: (1) travel to locate and collect the plant, (2) bundle it, (3) use a mule or donkey to transport it, (4) extract the fiber with relatively artisanal instruments and (5) dry it to sell the fiber 3.2.7. Live Fences The construction of living fences in rural areas of northern [ 25 , 27 ] and southern [ 98 ] Mexico is common and has several objectives. Live fences serve as a barrier to natural elements and prevent entry to private property. The utilization of live fences is less expensive than the construction of block and cement fences, and it contributes to the beautification of the property. Due to their large size, uniform structure and durable leaves and thorns, the succulent species of the Asparagaceae, Cactaceae and Fouqueriaceae families are the most frequently used as live fences. The most used taxa in Iturbide are Mytrillocactus geometrizans , Agave americana , Yucca filifera , Y. treculeana and Fouquieria spelendens . The rich diversity of columnar cacti used as living fences is manifested in the south-central region of southern Mexico, where at least 14 taxa of cacti are exploited as components of living fences: Escontria chiotilla , Myrtillocactus geometrizans , M. schenkii , Pachycereus hollianus , Polaskia chende , P. chichipe , Stenocereus griseus , S. stellatus , S. treleasi , S. fricii , S. queretaroensis , S. quevedonis , S. beneckeiand and S. satnaleyii [ 99 ]. The light green and yellow-bordered leaves of A. americana var americana can reach up to 2.5 m in length and their scape (peduncle) can measure

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 17 of 43 up to 4.5 m in height with extremely showy inflorescences in yellow panicles that attract multiple pollinators Agave americana is also cultivated in Ecuador as a live fence to delimit land for grazing and farming [ 97 ]. The flowers of this and other species of Agave are eaten cooked, including A. salmiana and A. mapisaga (called “gualumbos”); both species are two of the most commercialized flowers with the largest number of ways of cooking in popular cuisine of Otom í origin in the center of Mexico (Pachuca, Hidalgo [ 100 ]). When live fences are constructed by planting Yucca plants directly adjacent to one another, they form a practically insurmountable barrier. Their resistant stems and thorny, leathery leaves cannot be easily broken by domestic cattle, and they reach up to 4 m in height. In addition, their flowers are edible and provide delicious seasonal food, which is also consumed in the center of the country in the state of Hidalgo [ 100 ]. In drier areas of Iturbide, dried stems from Fouquieria splendens are widely used as barriers, for instance, to fence goats and chickens 3.2.8. Dye Natural dyes obtained from plants have been widely used in Mexico since the pre- Hispanic era. Indigenous cultures in the western United States have used various plant species as dyes [ 98 ], several of which are also found in Iturbide, including Arundo donax , Cucumis melo , Gutierrezia sarothrae , Juglans major , Junieprus deppeana , Larrea trdientata , Opuntia engelmanii , Phaselus vulgaris , Prunus persica , Taraxacum officinale and Zea mays In Iturbide, we have registered the use of five species with dyeing properties (Appendix A ). The leaves, branches and fruits of species of Juglandaceae ( Carya and Juglans ) are boiled in water to create black or dark brown dye used to color hair. In eastern North America, Juglans cinerea is used as a dye, but also in construction as veneer, wood carvings, furniture and cabinetry [ 101 ]. The ripe and raw fruits of Hylocereus undatus (Cactaceae) and Morus celtidifolia (Moraceae) provide intense bright red and dark purple colors of great beauty which are used directly or boiled in water to create dye for clothes, tablecloths and fibers. Currently, in Iturbide, the use of these techniques is sporadic and practiced by very few people, especially older adults from neighboring towns who continue practicing artisan staining methods. The betacyanins extracted from the fruit of Hylocereus polyrhizus are used as a natural colorant in the manufacture of traditional ice cream; its application causes color changes in the raw material, similar to the artificial colorant (E-162), having greater acceptability than the artificial colorant [ 102 ]. 3.2.9. Roof Dry leaves of Arecaceae species, such as Washingtonia and Brahea, and stems of Poaceae, such as Bambusa and Arundo, are excellent elements for making roofs. The leaves are intertwined or spliced one on top of the other and tied; the large interwoven surface that the leaves provide creates an effective barrier against sun, wind and rain. The stems of the grasses Bambusa and Arundo are cut to a homogeneous size and tied with twine to create roof panels. Although these are more fragile and less resistant to inclement weather, they are common in many of Iturbide’s houses. This custom extends in the northwestern region of Mexico (Sonora), where, in addition to roofing houses, brooms are made. Their trunks ( Bambusa ) are also used for construction, and the fruit, the palm heart for food [ 103 ]. 3.3. Quantitative Ethnobotanical Indices (IFC, UVI, FL) Nowadays, the harnessed botanical taxa and the importance that people give to the medicinal properties are relevant factors to determine the ethnobotanical value of the regional flora [ 1 , 4 – 6 , 13 , 20 , 24 , 55 ]. According to the number of uses recorded for the different ailments, the highest IFC values were obtained for the respiratory (0.92), genitourinary (0.91), ophthalmic (0.90), digestive (0.89) and nervous (0.88) systems (Table 3 ). These systems represent the main health problems recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO [ 60 ]), as well as in research on the documentation of traditional medicine [ 1 , 2 , 7 ]. Among the taxa that had the most mentions to heal respiratory illnesses were those from the

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 18 of 43 families Lamiaceae, ( Ocimum basilicum , Mentha piperita and Monarda citriodora ), Asteraceae ( Tagetes lucida ), Liliaceae ( Allium sativa ) and Rutaceae ( Citrus limon ). These taxonomic families are reported for other traditional peoples in different parts of the world, e.g., in the Himalayas, Amazon and Australia. This is because plant families share common biochemistry (chemosystematics), which helps us understand traditional ethnobotanical knowledge around the world [ 104 ]. Few species were cited for the treatment of genitourinary and circulatory diseases, but those seemed to be particularly effective, especially Turnera difussa , Eryngium heterophyllum and Equisetum laevigatum . The most commonly mentioned species included Eryngium heterophyllum , which has proven to be an excellent remedy for high cholesterol levels [ 105 ], and the multipurpose medicinal species Petroselinum crispum , which is used as a diuretic, carminative, gastronomic agent and anti-inflammatory; these properties of the plant have been corroborated in formal studies [ 106 ]. Moreover, this species is used to treat amenorrhea, cardiac disease, gastrointestinal disorder, hypertension, urinary disease, otitis, nasal congestion, diabetes and several dermal diseases. It is worth noting that, although there are only three species used for the cure of ophthalmic ailments, Matricaria recutita , Echeveria simulans and Sedum palmeri , they are invariably used for that particular purpose. Although the IFC value for the gastrointestinal system ranked fourth, it is almost quantitatively equal to the respiratory, genitourinary and ophthalmic systems The Use Value Index (UVI) is interpreted as the potential use of a particular species that is used to cure or counteract a specific ailment. Therefore, higher values determine the frequency of medicinal species [ 13 ]. In our study, it is interesting to note that the highest UVI values were obtained for exotic species, which reflects the importance of their inclusion in the traditional medicine of Iturbide residents. The species in order of descending importance are Lepidium peruvianum (3), Ocimum basilicum (2.4), Rosmarinus officinale (2.29), Mentha piperita (2.25), Cinnamomum verna (2.06) and Plectranthus coleoides (2, Table 4 ). The native species with the greatest UVI values were Conyza filaginoides (2), Psidium guajava (1.86) and Zea mays (1.72) All interviewees mentioned that Lepidium peruvianum relieves gastrointestinal, endocrine (prostate) and urinary (kidney) ailments Table 4. Plant species with medicinal uses that obtained the highest UVI values in Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n, Mexico. The letters ‘E’ and ‘N’ refer to the Exotic and Native origin of each species, respectively Scientific Name UVI Origin Lepidium peruvianum G.Chac ó n 3 E Ocimum basilicum L 2.4 E Rosmarinus officinalis L 2.29 E Mentha piperita L 2.25 E Cinnamomum verum J.Presl 2.06 E Plectranthus coleoides Benth 2 E Thymus vulgaris L 2 E Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck 2 E Amphipterygium adstringens (Schltdl.) Standl 2 N Conyza filaginoides (DC.) Hieron 2 N Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F. H.Wigg 1.86 E Psidium guajava L 1.86 N Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry 1.75 E Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh 1.73 E Zea mays L 1.72 N The other mentioned species, especially those belonging to the Lamiaceae family, are frequently cited in the literature as having medicinal properties, especially to treat ailments of the respiratory system [ 107 ]. A total of seventeen medicinal taxa obtained 100% of Fidelity Level. These plants were the most commonly mentioned to heal a specific type of disease. A total of thirteen medicinal taxa with the highest Fidelity Level are native and four are exotic, with the families Asteraceae [ 108 ] and Lamiaceae [ 107 ] being the

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 19 of 43 most well-represented (Table 5 ). Moreover, at least eleven families are used for medicinal purposes (Appendix A ), and the fact that almost all species used have a fidelity level of 100% indicates that these species are quite well-known for their healing properties The taxa with the highest number of mentions were Equisetum laevigatum , Turnera diffusa , Artemisia ludoviciana , Flouresnia cernua , Ficus carica and Verbena canescens Table 5. The highest values obtained in the Fidelity Label (FL%) index determine the ethnobotanical species with greater relevance in the medicinal categories. Its weighting is given from the number of informants who mention the species i to cure a specific disease (Ip), with respect to the frequency of mention of the mentioned species (Iu) Plant Species Ailment Ip Iu FL(%) Chenopodium ambrosioides L Gastrointestinal system 16 16 100 Eryngium heterophyllum Hemsl. & Rose Circulatory system 15 16 94 Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt Gastrointestinal system 17 17 100 Calea oliveri B.L.Rob. & Greenm Gastrointestinal system 14 14 100 Chrysactinia mexicana A. Gray Gastrointestinal system 18 18 100 Flourensia cernua DC Gastrointestinal system 17 17 100 Gnaphalium viscosum Kunth Respiratory system 14 14 100 Equisetum laevigatum A. Braun Genitourinary system 28 28 100 Hedeoma drummondii Benth Nervous system 16 16 100 Monarda citriodora var austromontana (Epling) B.L.Turner Respiratory system 24 26 92 Punica granatum L Gastrointestinal system 14 14 100 Ficus carica L Endocrine system 17 17 100 Moringa oleifera Lam Endocrine system 9 9 100 Purshia plicata (D.Don) Henr Gastrointestinal system 10 10 100 Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck Respiratory system 16 16 100 Turnera diffusa Willd. ex Schult Genitourinary system 19 19 100 Verbena canescens Kunth Nervous system 17 17 100 4. Conclusions Iturbide presents a high biocultural diversity of ethnobotanical taxa. This diversity is made up of native and exotic species; in general, it is very similar to that of other nearby areas with similar climate, relief and vegetation in the state of Nuevo Le ó n [ 13 , 24 – 27 ], for the northeast zone [ 59 ], the northern macro-region [ 48 , 86 ] and in general, for arid and semiarid zones in Mexico [ 50 ]. In addition, this diversity at the local level has a relationship with the variation in altitude within Iturbide, being possible to find several types of vegetation, including scrub vegetation at lower altitudes and coniferous forests at higher altitudes, forming an ecotone between these vegetations. This heterogeneity means that there are no differences in its diversity, even concerning pine-oak forest sites [ 49 ]. Comparing the level of knowledge and use of ethnobotany in Iturbide and the significance with respect to other sites shown in the investigation, we can conclude that there is a strong cultural attachment to native and exotic flora; it is complete with a multifunctional roll. The traditional ethnobotanical knowledge of the local inhabitants of the Iturbide mestizo region is highly important. Our results contribute to the ethnobotanical biocultural diversity in northeast Mexico and in general in the north of the country. We maintain that the knowledge and practices of plants used in rural mestizo regions, arid and semiarid zones as well as transition zones are as relevant as those rooted in localities of indigenous tradition and high biological diversity In the study site, the inclusion of exotic species concerning the native ones is important and this has also been reported in other localities of the region [ 13 ]. This pattern demonstrates the learning capacity of local communities in the face of the entry of new plant species, creating new knowledge and taking advantage of them and even promoting a phenomenon of co-evolution.

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 20 of 43 Both native and exotic plants play a multifunctional role, taking advantage of various anthropocentric categories and highlighting the ornamental use. Regarding the ornamental flora, it shows the abundance of species for this purpose, which are cultivated in public parks and private gardens. This phenomenon has been documented in other localities [ 13 ], and its relevance is associated with the population’s interest in mitigating solar radiation, enhancing the landscape beauty of arid and semiarid areas, contributing significantly to the reduction in stress caused by climate change and improving physical and emotional human health and well-being [ 18 ]. Despite showing cultural changes, where medicinal and food plants go into the background, after being more relevant for their role in primary human functions, they continue to be important and are used to cure a series of diseases. Interestingly, species with higher use values (UVI) are introduced, further promoting these cultural changes and meeting new health needs of local residents. However, the level of fidelity (FL) maintains certain native species to address problems with the digestive and respiratory systems. Regarding edible plants, these are seasonal and continue to be included in the local gastronomy. All this shows that traditional knowledge, despite undergoing adaptations, continues to prevail and is transmitted from generation to generation. However, they are at risk from the increasing loss of the younger population Author Contributions: Research design and approach: E.E.-C., T.V.G.-S., J Á .V.-Q. and L.G.C.-R.; ethnographic methodological design: M.M.-S., J.A.E.-D., W.H. and M.M.S.-R.; biological methodological design: M.M.S.-R., J.G., M.C.-C., L.M.S.-M., R.J.F. and P.G.-Z.; interview application: all authors participated in the application of the interviews; databases: H.G.-E., M.G.-G., P.G.-Z. and J.R.A.-S.; analysis of data: E.E.-C., J.R.A.-S. and W.H.; design of figures and tables: J.G., M.C.-C., L.M.S.-M., R.J.F. and P.G.-Z.; manuscript writing: E.E.-C., T.V.G.-S., J Á .V.-Q., L.G.C.-R., J.A.E.-D. and M.M.-S.; document revision: all authors reviewed the manuscript; edition: E.E.-C., T.V.G.-S. and J.R.A.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript Funding: This research received no external funding Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable Data Availability Statement: Not applicable Acknowledgments: To the local inhabitants for their support in the development of the interviews and the collection of the botanical specimens Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 21 of 43 Appendix A Table 1. Families, genera, species and their uses in Iturbide, Nuevo Le ó n, Mexico. The letter after author name indicates: N = native and E = exotic. The collection number belongs to Eduardo Estrada (EE) Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use ACANTHACEAE Hypoestes phyllostachya Baker, E, EE 25323 Paleta de pintor Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Beloperone gutatta Brendegee, N, EE 25325 Camar ó n Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens ACERACEAE Acer negundo L., EE 25383 Maple Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public parks and private gardens ACTINIDIACEAE Actinidia deliciosa (A.Chev.) C.F.Liang & A.R.Ferguson, E, EE 25447 Kiwi Food Fruit (pulp) Raw ADOXACEAE Sambucus canadensis L., N, EE 25384 Sauco Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public parks and private gardens Medicinal (respiratory system) Inflorescences and flowers Boiled, drink the infusion AMARANTHACEAE Amaranthus palmeri S.Watson, N, EE 25326 Quelite Food Leaves and inflorescences (young) Cook with oil or raw (previously disinfected with chlorine in water) Forage Whole plant Raw Beta vulgaris subsp adanensis (Pamukç.) Ford-Lloyd & J.T. Williams, E, EE 25448 Betabel Food Leaves Boiled, liquate medicinal (gastrointestinal system), detoxify the gut Leaves Raw, boiled or cooked Dye Roots Raw, squeezed Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla L., E, EE 25371 Acelga Food Leaves Raw, boiled or fried Chenopodium ambrosioides L., N, EE 25324 Epazote Food Leaves, inflorescences and flowers Boil or cook with beans (to add flavor) Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), eliminate intestinal worms Leaves, stems, inflorescences and flowers Boiled, drink the solution Condiment Leaves and stems Dried, crushed, added to flavor the food Forage Whole plant Raw Spinacia oleracea (L.) E.H.L.Krause, E, EE 25449 Espinaca Food Leaves Raw (previusly disinfected with chlorine in water) Medicinal (gastrointestinal system) Leaves Liquate, raw, to eliminate amoeba AMARYLLIDACEAE Crinum asiaticum L., E, 25450 Lirio listado Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Clivia miniata (Lindl.) Bosse, E, EE 25451 Clivia Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens ANACARDIACEAE Amphipterygium adstringens (Schltdl.) Standl., N, EE 25452 Cuacharalate Medicinal (dermic system), antiseptic, antibiotic Bark Boiled, used as cataplasm, wound washing

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 22 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Mangifera indica L., E, EE 25454 Mango Food Fruit Raw, mixed with green salads Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Rhus trilobata Nutt., N, EE 25455 Lantrisco, jobo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Construction Trunks and branches Dried, to make columns of houses, tools and fuel Rhus virens Lindh. ex A. Gray, N, EE 25456 Lantrisco Construction of tools and fuel Trunks and branches Dried, to make columns of houses, tools and fuel Forage Leaves Raw Schinus molle L., E, EE 25457 Pirul Rites (soul cleansing) and religion Small branches and leaves Leaves are rubbed all over the individual’s body while praying Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens ANNONACEAE Annona muricata L., N, EE 25453 Guan á bana Food Fruit Raw or liquid to make fruit drinks APIACEAE Apium graveolens L., E, EE 25327 Apio Food Leaves Raw, in salads Medicinal (blood system), low cholesterol Leaves and stems Raw Coriandrum sativum L., EE 25328 Cilantro Food (condiment) Leaves Raw or cooked in broth Cuminum cyminum L., E, EE 25329 Comino Food (condiment) Seeds Cooked with rice and meat Daucus carota L., E Zanahoria Food Root Raw or cooked with different vegetables Daucus carota L., E, EE 25330 Hierba del sapo Medicinal (urinary system), dissolve kidney stones Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the solution Eryngium heterophyllum Hemsl. & Rose, N, EE 25504 Perejil Medicinal (blood system), low cholesterol and triglycerides Root Boiled, drink the solution Food Leaves and stems Raw or cooked with different vegetables Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss, E, EE 25331 Medicinal (urinary system) Leaves Prevents bladder infections Medicinal (blood system) Leaves Purifies the blood APOCYNACEAE Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold, E, EE 25503 Cascabel Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Plumeria rubra L., N Ramo de novia Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Vinca minor L., E, EE 25220 Teresita Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private and public gardens ARACEAE Spathiphyllum wallisii Regel, N, EE 25502 Cuna de Mois é s Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Anthurium magnificum Linden, N, EE 25501 Anturio, lampazo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng., E, 25500 Alcatraz Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens ARECAECEAE Brahea berlandieri (Kunth) Mart., N, EE 25499 Palmito Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Rites Leaves Ornaments in floral bouquets Construction Leafs Roofs of houses and cabins

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 23 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Cocos nucifera L., E, EE 25385 Coco Food Fruit Raw pulp and its water, to make candies Washingtonia filifera (Linden ex Andr é ) H.Wendl. ex de Bary, N, EE 25386 Palma Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Construction, roofs Leaves Dried ASPARAGACEAE Agave lechuguilla Torr., N, EE 25251 Lechugilla Healthy hair Root Milled, raw, used as shampoo Fibers Leaves Leaves divided into multiple fibers used to make woven products Food Root Boiled and fermented (to prepare alcoholic beverages) Living fences Whole plant Planted in private gardens Agave americana L. var. americana, N, EE 25251 b Maguey Food Root Agua miel (sap), raw or cooked to make syrup Food (quiote) Peduncle Cooked in a well with hot stones and firewood, covered for 24 h Food Flowers Cooked Food Root Boiled and fermented (to prepare alcoholic beverages) Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Construction Peduncle (dry) Livestock keeper Living fences Whole plant Planted in private gardens Agave aff scabra Ortega, N, EE 25251 c Maguey, bronco Food (quiote) Peduncle Cooked in a well with hot stones and firewood, covered for 24 h Fibers Leaves Used to make ties Living fences Whole plant Planted in private gardens Living fences Whole plant Planted in private gardens Asparagus setaceus Kunth, E, EE 25332 Hoja elegante Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Dasylirion berlandieri S. Watson, N, EE 25253 Sotol Food Root Boiled and fermented (to prepare alcoholic beverages) Religious rites Leaves (base) With the base of the leaves, structures similar to flowers are made that adorn the main square and streets in celebration of the patronal feast of San Pedro Polianthes tuberosa L., N, EE 25254 Nardo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Sansevieria trifasciata Prin., E, EE 25498 Lengua de suegra Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private and public gardens Yucca filifera Chabaud, N, EE 25155 Palma china Food Flowers (called chochas) Raw, collected before opening and the reproductive structures are removed so that when cooking they do not make the food bitter Food Fuit (called d á tiles) Raw Yucca filifera Chabaud, N, EE 25155 Palma china Food Fruit Raw Ornamental Whole plant Raw

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 24 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Yucca treculeana Carri è re, N, EE 25155 b Palma samandoca Food Flowers (called chochas) Raw, collected before opening and the reproductive structures are removed so that when cooking they do not make the food bitter Live fences Whole plant Planted in private gardens ASPHODELACEAE Kalanchoe blosfeldiana Poelln., E, EE 25152 Brujita Ornamental, for its beautiful fleshy leaves Whole plant Planted in private gardens Kalanchoe digremontiana Raym.-Hamet & H. Perrier, E, EE 25333 Urania Medicinal (endocrine system), anti-inflamatory Sap Raw, drink the sap Medicinal (gastric system), heal gastrointetinal problems Leaves (pulp) Raw, milled, drink the sap Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens ASTERACEAE Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt., N, EE 25256, EE 25334 Estafiate Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), diarrhea, flatulences Leaves and stems Boiled, drink infusion Baccharis salicifolia Nutt, N, EE 25258 Jara, jarilla Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), diarrhea, flatulences Leaves and stems Cut into pieces, boiled in water, drink the solution Calea oliveri B.L.Rob. & Greenm., N, EE 25368 Á mbula Medicinal (nervous system), insomnia Leaves Boiled in water, drink the solution Chrysactinia mexicana A. Gray, N, EE 25370 Hierba de San Nicol á s Medicinal (reproductive system), aphrodisiac Leaves Boiled in water, drink the solution Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat., EE 25222 Crisantemo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Conyza filaginoides (DC.) Hieron, N, EE 25497 Simonillo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), diarrhea, colic Leaves and stems Boiled in water, drink the solution Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes and cancer Leaves and stems Boiled in water, drink the solution Dahlia coccinea Cav., N, EE 25388 Dalia (the representative plant of Mexico) Ornamental, by its showy and big inflorescences with red external flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Flourensia cernua DC., N, EE 25387 Hojas é Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), constipation Leaves Boil only 3–4 leaves, very astringent effect and very bitter taste Gnaphalium viscosum Kunth, N, EE 25389 Gordolobo Medicinal (respiratory system), cough, throat pain Stems, leaves, inflorescences and flowers Boiled in water, drink the solution Grindelia inuloides Willd. var inuloides , N, EE 25390 Á rnica Medicinal (skeletal-muscular system), external wounds Leaves and inflorescences Boiled in hot water, drink the solution Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britton & Rusby, N, EE 25496 Amargosa Medicinal (broken bones), Leaves Used as plaster (glutinous stems, sticky)

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 25 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Gymnopserma glutinosum Less., N, EE 25369 Marica Fibers Branches Dried, they Household items Leaves and stems Dried, intertwined, tied and attached to a stick to make homemade brooms Helianthus annuus L., N, EE 24495 Girasol Forage Whole plant Raw Lactuca sativa L., E, EE 25391 Lechuga Food Leaves Raw, previosly disinfected with chlorine Machaeranthera tanacetifolia (Kunth) Nees, N, EE 25494 Á rnica Medicinal Leaves and inflorescences Boiled, solution used as cataplasm Matricaria recutita L., E, EE 25493 Manzanilla Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), colic, stomach ache Leaves Boiled, drink the solution Parthenium hysterophorus L., N, EE 25492 Amargoso Mosquito repellent Whole plant (dry) Burning in the yard, smoke produced repels insects and other pests Household items Leaves and stems Dried, intertwined, tied and attached to a stick to make homemade brooms Tagetes lucida (Sweet) Voss, N, EE 25491 Yerban í s Beverage Leaves, stems, inflorescences and flowers Boiled, drink as tea Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), stomach ache, colic, ulcer Leaves, stems, inflorescences and flowers Boiled, drink as tea Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip., E, EE 25490 Altamisa Mosquito repellent Whole plant Alive, inside the house Medicinal (gastric system), stomach ache Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the solution Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F H.Wigg., E, EE 25489 Diente de le ó n Food Leaves Raw (previously disinfected with chlorine) Forage Whole plant Raw Trixis californica Kellogg, N, EE 25488 Á rnica Medicinal Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the solution Zinnia elegans L., N, EE 25335 Cartulina Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private and public gardens BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens hawkeri W. Bull, E, EE 25219 Bel é n Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens BEGONIACEAE Begonia gracilis Kunth, N, EE 25236 Begonia Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens BIGNONIACEAE Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet, N, EE 25487 Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private and public gardens Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth, N, EE 25218 Tronadora, San Pedro Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens BORAGINACEAE Cordia boisssieri A. DC., N, EE 25157 Anacahuita Medicinal (respiratory system), pneumonia Flowers and fruit (pulp) Boiled, drink the infusion Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Forage Fruit Raw Ehretia anacua (Ter á n & Berland.) I. M Johnst., N, EE 25163 Anacua Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 26 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use BRASSICACEAE Brassica oleracea L., E, EE 25486 Repollo Food Leaves Raw or cooked with other vegetables Lepidium peruvianum G. Chac ó n, E, EE 25336 Ra í z peruana Medicinal (gastrointestinal, endocrine and urinary systems) Root Boiled, drink the infusion Rorippa officinale R. Br., E, EE 25485 Berro Medicinal (endocrine system), protstate problems Leaves and stems Boiled, eat and drink infusion Food Leaves Raw (previusly disinfected with chlorine in water) or cooked with other vegetables Raphanus sativus L., E, EE 25484 R á bano Food Root Raw, in salads Medicinal (respiratory system), asthma problems Root Raw, pulp Medicinal (blood system), lower blood pressure Root Raw, pulp BROMELIACEAE Ananas comosus (L.) Merr., E, EE 25483 Piña Food Fruit Raw Food Fruit juice Meat tenderizer Hechtia podantha Mez, N, EE 25392 Guapilla Fibers Leaves Leaves divided into multiple fibers used to make woven products (ties) Tillandsia usneoides (L.) L., N, EE 25231 Paixtle Religious rites Leaves Dried, decorate the christmas tree Manufacture of articles Leaves To make pillows BUDDLEJACEAE Buddleja cordata ssp tomentella (Standl.) E.M.Norman, N, EE 25393 Tepoz á n Medicinal (skeletal-muscular system), general pain Leaves Boiled in water, solution used as cataplasm CACTACEAE Cylindropuntia imbricata (Haw.) F.M.Knuth, N, EE 25246 Coyonoxtle Medicinal (skeletal-muscular system), breaks and fissures of bones Stems and pulp Raw, use as cataplasm, smear the pulp on the injured area and bandage Cylindropuntia leptocaulis (DC.) F.M.Knuth, N, EE 25246 b Tasajillo Medicinal (endocrine system) cancer Stems and pulp Boiled, drink the infusion Echinocactus platyacanthus Link & Otto, N, EE 25482 Biznaga burra Food Stems and pulp Cooked with piloncillo (brown sugar) to make candies Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britton & Rose, N, EE 25377 Pithaya Food Fruit Raw, blended with water to make drinks Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Dye Fruit Raw, squeezed Lophophora williamsii (Lem. ex Salm-Dyck) J.M. Coult., N, EE 25394 Peyote Spiritual, religious Whole plant Raw, eaten in pieces or blended in water and drink the potion Medicinal (skeletal-muscular system) Whole plant or cut into pieces inside alcohol and mixed with marijuana (Cananbis sativa) Raw, cataplasm, rubbed on sore joints Medicinal (nervous system), insomnia Pieces of plant Raw, eaten in pieces or blended in water and drink the potion

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 27 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Mammillaria heyderi Muehlenpf., N, EE 25395 Chilitos Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Myrtillocactus geometrizans (Mart. ex Pfeiff.) Console, N, EE 25396 Garambuyo Living fences Whole plant Planted in private gardens Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill., N, EE 25397 Nopal sin espina Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Forage Stems (cladodes) Raw, cut into pieces and scorched (to remove thorns) Food Stems (cladodes) and fruit Peeled and cut into pieces, raw or cooked, fruit eaten raw Medicinal (endocrine system), low cholesterol Stems Raw, cut into pieces and eat Opuntia lindheimeri Engelm., N, EE 25249 Nopal Forage Stems (cladodes) and fruit Raw, cut into pieces and scorched (to remove thorns), fruits eaten raw Food Stems Raw Medicinal (endocrine system), low cholesterol Stems Raw, stem pulp Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), improve digestion Stems Raw, stem pulp, liquefied CANNABACEAE Celtis leavigata Willd., N, EE 25233 b Palo blanco Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Celtis pallida Torr., N, EE 25233 Granjeno Food Fruit Raw or boiled to make syrup Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens CANNABINACEAE Cannabis sativa L., E, EE 25481 Mariguana Medicinal (skeletal-muscular system) Female inflorescences and leaves into alcohol and mixed with peyote Cataplasm, rubbing on sore joints Recreational, playful use Female inflorescences Smoked CANNACEAE Canna indica L., E, EE 25240 Coyol Ornamental, for its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens CAPRIFOLIACEAE Lonicera japonica Thunb., E, EE 26167 Madreselva Ornamental, for the delicious aroma of its flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens CARICACEAE Carica papaya L., N, EE 25480 Papaya Food Fruit Raw or in fruit salads CARYOPHYLLACEAE Dianthus caryophyllus L., E, EE 25224 Clavel Ornamental, for its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Dianthus deltoides L., E, EE 25440 Clavelina Ornamental, for its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Gypsophila paniculata L., E, EE 25441 Ilusi ó n Ornamental, for its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens COMMELINACEAE Commelina coelestis Willd., N, EE 25442 Hierba del pollo Ornamental, for its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 28 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use COSTACEAE Costus igneus N. E. Br., E, EE 25443 Insulina Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., N, EE 25444 Camote Food Root Rosted or boiled Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth, N, EE 25445 Manto de la virgen Ornamental, for its beautiful purple flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens CRASSULACEAE Echeveria simulans Rose, N, EE 25446 Siempreviva Ornamental, for its beautiful fleshy leaves Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (ophthalmic system), red eyes, irritated eyes Sap Eye drops Sedum diffusum S. Watson, N, EE 25437 Chismes Ornamental, for its beautiful fleshy leaves Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (ophtlmic system), red eyes, irritated eyes Sap Eye drops Sedum palmeri S. Watson, N, EE 25438 Deditos Ornamental, for its beautiful fleshy leaves Whole plant Planted in private gardens CUCURBITACEAE Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai, E, EE 25151 Sand í a Food Fruit Raw, cut into pieces Forage (pigs) Fruit peel Raw Cucumis anguria L., E, EE 25364 Pepinillo Food Fruit Boiled into brine Forage Fruit Raw Cucumis melo L., E, EE 25365 Mel ó n Food Fruit Raw, cut into pieces Forage (pigs) Fruit peel Raw Cucurbita ficifolia Bouch é , E, EE 25366 Chilacayote Food Fruit Boiled in water with sugar to make candies Forage Fruit Raw Food Fruit Cooked with other vegetables Cucurbita moschata Duchesne, N, EE 25367 Calabaza Food Fruit Cooked or boiled in water with sugar to make candies Forage Leaves Raw Cucurbita pepo L., N, EE 25439 Calabaza Food Fruit Cooked Food Seeds Raw, dried, toasted and salty Forage Leaves and fruit Raw Luffa aegyptiaca Mill., E, EE 25435 Estropajo Fibers Inner part of dried fruit To wash dishes or to carve skin for bathing Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw., N, EE 25479 Chayote Food Fruit Raw, cut into pieces or boiled CUPRESSACEAE Cupressus arizonica Greene, N, EE 25153 Cedro Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Fuel Wood Dried Furniture Wood Dried Religious rites Sap (resin) Used as incense during religious prayers Construction Wood Dried to make columns and beams of houses

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 29 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Cupressus lousitanica Mill., E, EE 25153 a Cipr é s Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Furniture Wood Dried Fuel Wood Dried Construction Wood Dried to make columns and beams of houses Cupressus sempervirens L., E, EE 25378 Pincel Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Fuel Wood Dried Construction Wood Dried to make columns and beams of houses Juniperus flaccida Schltdl., N, EE 25436 T á scate Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Fuel Wood Dried Construction Wood Dried to make columns and beams of houses Thuja occidentalis L., E, EE 25172 Tuya Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens CYCADACEAE Cycas revoluta Thunb., N, EE 25434 Chamal, cica Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Dioon edule Lindl., N, EE 25375 Chamal Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Food Seeds To make flour and tortillas EBENACEAE Diospyros palmeri Eastw., N, EE 25432 Chapote Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Forage Fruit Raw, for cattle, sheeps, goats and pigs Fuel Trunks and branches Dried Construction Wood Dried to make columns and beams of houses EQUISETACEAE Equisetum laevigatum A. Braun, N, EE 25433 Cola de caballo Medicinal (urinary system), kidney pain Stems Boiled, drink the infusion EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha hederacea Torr., N, EE 25173 Hierba del c á ncer Medicinal (endcorine system), cancer Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the solution Forage Whole plant Raw Croton suaveolens Torr., N, EE 25478 Salvia Medicinal (blood system), anemia Leaves and stems Boiled in water, drink the infusion Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch, N, EE 25156 Noche buena Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Euphorbia dentata Michx., N, EE 25261 Golondrina Medicinal (respiratory system), sinusitis Leaves and stems Boiled in water, infusion used as nasal drops Euphoria milii Des Moul., E, EE 25261 b Corona de Cristo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Jatropha dioica Sess é , N, EE 25431 Sangre de Drago Medicinal (dermatologic system), hair growth, fungi Milled, the pulp used as shampoo Medicinal (gastric system), harden the gums Leaves and stems Milled, chew and spit out the pulp Ricinus communis L., E, EE 25159 Higuerilla Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb., E, EE 25164 Sapium Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Tragia ramosa Torr., N, EE 25363 Mala mujer Medicinal (urinary system), kidney diseases Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion FABACEAE Arachis hypogaea L., E, EE 25429 Cacahuate Food Seeds Raw Forage Leaves Raw

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 30 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Bauhinia purpurea L., N, EE 25225 Pata de vaca Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Medicinal (gastrointestinal system) Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Calliandra conferta A.Gray, N, EE 25430 Charrasquillo Forage Leaves and fruit Raw Cercis canadensis L., N, EE 25165 Duraznillo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Cicer arietinum L., E, EE 25379 Garbanzo Food Seeds Cooked Erythrostemon mexicanus (A. Gray) Gagnon & G. P. Lewis, N, EE 25229 Potro Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Eysenhardtia texana Scheele, N, 25477 Palo azul Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Lens culinaris Medik, E, EE 25428 Lenteja Food Seeds Cooked Pachyrhizus erosus (L.) Urb., N, EE 25476 J í cama Phaseolus vulgaris L., N, EE 25475 Frijol Food Seeds Cooked Pisum sativum L., E, EE 25474 Ch í charo Food Seeds Cooked Prosopis glandulosa var torreyana (L.D.Benson) M.C.Johnst., N, EE 25473 Mezquite Construction Trunks and branches Dried to make columns and beams of houses Fuel Trunks and branches Charcoal Forage Leaves and fruit Raw Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn., N, EE 25234 Huizache Construction Trunks and branches Dried Fuel Trunks and branches Charcoal Forage Leaves and fruit Raw Vicia faba L., E, EE 25238 Haba Food Seeds Cooked FAGACEAE Quercus virginiana Mill., N, EE 25166 Encino Construction Wood Dried to manufacture furniture and household goods Forage Seeds (called bellotas) Raw Fuel Wood Dried, cut into pieces Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Quercus canbyi Trel., N, EE 25427 Encino Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Construction Wood Dried to manufacture furniture, household goods and columns and beams of houses Forage Seeds (called bellotas) Raw Fuel Wood Dried, cut into pieces Construction Wood Dried to manufacture furniture, household goods and columns and beams of houses Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Quercus polymorpha Schltdl. & Cham., N, EE 25426 Encino Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Forage Seeds (called bellotas) Raw Fuel Wood Dried, cut into pieces Construction Wood To manufacture furniture and household goods

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 31 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use FOUQUERACEAE Fouquieria spelendens Engelm., N, EE 25380 Ocotillo, albarda Living fences Stems Stems are cut and planted in rows, eventually producing root and leaves (living fences) Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens GERANIACEAE Pelargonium hortorum L.H. Bailey, E, EE 25227 Geranio Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens GESNERIACEAE Tulipa gesneriana L., E, EE 25472 Tulip á n Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens HYDRANGEECEAE Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser., E, EE 25471 Hortensia Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens JUGLANDACEAE Carya illinionensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch, N, EE 25168 Nogal Forage Leaves Raw Food Fruit Raw Construction Wood Dried Fuel Wood Dried Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes Fruit Raw Medicinal (dermic system), hair dye Bark Boiled in water, wash hair with solution Carya myristiciformis (F. Michx.) Nutt. ex Elliott, N, EE 25470 Nogal Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Medicinal (dermic system), hair dye Bark Boiled in water, wash hair with solution Juglans major (Torr.) A. Heller, N, EE 25469 Nogal de nuez encarcelada Forage Leaves Raw Food Fruit Raw Construction Wood Dried Fuel Wood Dried Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Medicinal (dermic system), hair dye Bark Boiled in water, wash hair with solution Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), colics Leaves Boiled in water LAMIACEAE Hedeoma drummondii Benth., N, EE 25468 Poleo Medicinal (nervous system), to fall asleep Whole plant Boiled, drink the infusion Lavandula angustifolia Mill., E Lavanda Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Marrubium vulgare L., E, EE 25424 Marrubio Medicinal (gastrointestinal system) Leaves Boiled, drink the solution Medicinal (respiratory system), cough Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion, chew and swallow leaves and stems

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 32 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Melissa officinalis L., E, EE 25425 Toronjil Ornamental, for its delicious aroma and to repel mosquitoes Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), colics Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (respiratory system), cough Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion Mentha piperita L., E, EE 25241 Yerbabuena Medicinal (respiratory system), cough Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion, chew and swallow leaves and stems Medicinal (respiratory system), fever and cold Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion Mentha spicata L., E, EE 25241 b Yerbabuena Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), spasms Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (respiratory system), flu and asthma Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Monarda citriodora var austromontana (Epling) B.L.Turner, N, EE 25381 Poleo cabez ó n, bet ó nica Medicinal (respiratory system), cough Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion, chew and swallow leaves and stems Medicinal (nervous system), to fall asleep Leaves Dried, put a piece of branch under the pillow at night Ornamental, for its delicious aroma and beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Ocimum basilicum L., E, EE 25242 Albahaca Medicinal (nervous system), used against insomnia, to fall asleep Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion Religious rites Whole plant Part of the flower bouquets used in pilgrimages Origanum majorana L., E, EE 25257 Or é gano Food (condiment) Leaves Dried, added to broths and soups Medicinal (respiratory system), cough and cold Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion Plectranthus coleoides Benth., E, EE 25362 Vapor ú Medicinal (respiratory system), cough Leaves and stems Milled, mixed with glycerine and spread on the chest and nostrils Religious rites Whole plant Dried, milled, used as incense Ornamental, by its delicious aroma and beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Poliomintha longiflora A.Gray, N, EE 25259 Or é gano de montaña Food (condiment) Leaves and stems Dried, added to broths and soups Medicinal (respiratory system), cough, throat pain Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers and aroma Whole plant Planted in private gardens Rosmarinus officinalis L., E, EE 25382 Romero Medicinal (gastrointestinal system) colics Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (respiratory system), nasal congetion Stems, leaves and flowers Cut into pieces, boiled, drink the infusion Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers and aroma Whole plant Planted in private gardens Condiment Leaves Dried, added to flavor the food

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 33 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Scutellaria sp., N, EE 25422 Mirto Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers and aroma Whole plant Planted in private gardens Teucrium cubense L., N, EE 25423 Verneba Medicinal (fever) Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the solution Thymus vulgaris L., E, EE 25360 Tomillo Medicinal (respiratory system), cough and expectorant Leaves and stems Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (dermic system), dermic infections Leaves Boiled, use as cataplasm Food (condiment) Leaves and stems Dried, add to stews, soups and broths LAURACEAE Cinnamomum verum J.Presl., E, EE 25361 Canela Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), stomach pain, vomit Bark Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (respiratory system), cough and throat pain Bark Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes Bark Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (blood system), improve blood circulation Bark Boiled, drink the infusion Litsea glauscecens Kunth, N, EE 25359 Laurel Food (condiment) Leaves Dried, add to stews, soups and broths Ornamental, by its showy green stems Whole plant Planted in private gardens Persea americana Mill., N, EE 25170 Aguacate Food Fruit Raw, used in multiple ways Medicinal (respiratory system), asthma Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (circulatory system), arterial hypertension Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Persea podadenia S. F. Blake, N Salsafr á s Medicinal (circulatory system), anemia Bark Cut into pieces, boiled, drink the infusion LILIACEAE Allium cepa L., E, EE 25358 Cebolla Food Stem Raw or boiled Medicinal (respiratory system), cough, asthma, flu Stem Boiled, drink the infusion along with honey bee Medicinal (circulatory system), improve blood circulation Stems Boiled, drink the infusion Allium sativum L., E, EE 25421 Ajo Medicinal (circulatory system), low cholesterol, improve circulation Stems Boiled, drink the infusion, raw, cut into pieces, milled Medicinal (dermic system), dermic wounds Cloves Ground garlic cloves, the pulp is smeared on the wound Medicinal (auditive system), earache Cloves Milled, pulp is semeared inside the ears Food (condiment) Bulb (clove) Raw or boiled, added to mutiple foods Religious rites Complete bulb Dried, several bulbs braided and hung at the entrance of houses to ward off bad vibes Allium sp., N, EE 25467 Ceboll í n Medicinal (auditive system) Bulb Raw, milled, pulp smeared inside the ears Lilium candidum L., E, EE 25466 Lirio Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens LOMARIOPSIDACEAE Nephrolepis exaltata (L.) Schott, N, EE 25465 Helecho Ornamental, by its beautiful perennial foliage Whole plant Planted in pots in private gardens

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 34 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use LHYTRACEAE Heimia salicifolia (Kunth) Link, N, EE 25169 Jarilla Medicinal (dermic system), dermatitis Leaves Milled, boiled in water, use as cataplam Lagerstroemia indica L., E, EE 25244 Cresp ó n Ornamental, by its beautiful perennial foliage and showy flowers Whole plant Planted in pots in public and private gardens Punica granatum L., E, EE 25154 Granada Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), diarrhea Peels Boiled in water, drink the solution Food Fruit Raw MAGNOLIACEAE Magnolia grandiflora L., N, EE 25171 Magnolia Ornamental, by its perennial foliage and beautiful white flowers Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens MALVACEAE Alcea rosea L., E, EE 25357 Malva rosa Ornamental, by its big and beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Hibiscus denudatus Benth., N, EE 25174 Hibisco Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Hibiscus syriacus L., E, EE 25417 Malva Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Malva parviflora L., N, EE 25418 Malva de patio Medicinal (circulatory system), varicose veins Fruit and leaves Boiled, drink the solution and chew and swallow the ground fruits and leaves Tilia mexicana Schltdl., N, EE 25419 Tila Medicinal (nervous system), insomnia Dried flowers Boiled in water, drink the solution Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens by its majestic bearing Sida rhombifolia L., N, EE 25420 Hierba del cochino Medicinal (gastrointestinal system) diarrhea Immature fruit Boiled in water, drink the infusion MELIACEAE Azadirachta indica A.Juss., E, EEEE 25265 Neem (Nim) Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), stomach pain, cramps, constipation Bark Boiled in water, drink solution Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Melia azedarach L., E, EE 25266 Canelo Medicinal (dermic system), wound, skin irritation Bark and leaves Boiled, infusion used as cataplasm in the wounded area Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens MORACEAE Ficus carica L., E, EE 25268 Higo Food Fruit Raw or boiled and canned fruit Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes Fruit and leaves Raw, leaves boiled, drink the infusion Morus celtidifolia Kunth, N, EE 25349 Mora Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes Fruit Boiled, drink the solution Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Food Fruit Raw Dye Fruit Raw, squeezed MORINGACEAE Moringa oleifera Lam., E, EE 25351 Moringa Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion MUSSACEAE Mussa x oleifera Lam., E, EE 25415 Pl á tano Food Fruit Raw

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 35 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use MYRTACEAE Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh., E, EE 25416 Eucalipto Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (respiratory system), nasal congestion Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (nervous system), stress Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Psidium guajava L., N, EE 25228 Guayaba Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), fever Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), diarrhea Fruit Raw, eat several fruits Food Fruit Raw and canned fruits Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes Leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M Perry, E, EE 25350 Clavo Food (condiment) Floral buds (immature and dry) Raw or bolied, used in multiple ways Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), constipation Fruit Boiled, drink the infusion or chewed NYCTAGINACEAE Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd., N, EE 25223 Bugambilia Ornamental, by its showy flowers Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Medicinal (respiratory system) Bracts and flowers Boiled in water, drink the solution Mirabilis jalapa L., N, EE 25252 Maravilla Ornamental, by its showy and beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens OLEACEAE Fraxinus americana L., N, EE 25255 b Fresno Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Construction Wood Dried to make columns and beams of houses Fraxinus cuspidata Torr., N, EE 25255 Fresno Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Fraxinus greggi A. Gray, N, EE 25255 c Barretilla Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Construction Wood Piles and columns for houses Fuel Wood Dried Jasminum floridum Bunge, E, EE 25372 Jazm í n Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Jasminum officinale L., E, EE 25372 b Jazmin Ligustrum japonicum Thunb., E, EE 25162 Trueno Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens ONAGRACEAE Oenothera rosea L’H é r. ex Aiton, N, EE 25413 Hierba del golpe Medicinal (dermic system), external wounds Whole plant Raw, milled, smeared in the wounded area PAPAVERACEAE Hunnemannia fumariifolia Sweet, N, EE 25348 Amapola de campo Ornamental, by its showy yellow flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens PINACEAE Pinus cembroides Zucc., N, EE 25353 Piñonero Food Seeds Raw Fuel Wood Dried Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 36 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Pinus greggii Engelm. ex Parl., N, EE 25354 Pino Fuel Wood Dried Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Pinus pseudostrobus Lindl., N, EE 25414 Pino blanco Fuel Wood Dried Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Religious rites Resin In prayer altars PIPERACEAE Piper nigrum L., E, EE 25356 Pimienta Food (condiment) Seeds Mixed with different meals PLANTAGINACEAE Antirrhinum majus L., E, EE 25459 Perritos Ornamental, by its beautiful flowers Whole plant Planted in private gardens Plantago lanceolata L., N, EE 25458 Llant é s Medicinal (endocrine system), cancer Leaves Boiled in water, drink the infusion PLUMBAGINACEAE Plumbago pulchella Boiss., E, EE 25158 J ú dica Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (dermic system) Stems and leaves Boiled, use the solution as catapalsm POLYGONACEAE Polygonum punctatum Elliot, N, EE 25407 Chilillo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens POACEAE Arundo donax L., E, EE 25408 Carrizo Religious rites Stems Religious ornaments Construction Stems Roofs Avena sativa L., E, EE 25373 Avena Food Seeds Raw or boiled Bambusa sp., E, EE 25374 Religious rites Stems Religious ornaments Construction Stems Roofs Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr., N, EE 25409 Banderita Forage Whole plants Raw Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf, E, EE 25410 Zacate lim ó n Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Medicinal (gastro-intestinal system) Stems and leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, E, EE 25411 Sorgo Forage Whole plants Raw Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers., E, EE 25412 Zacate Johnson Forage Whole plants Raw Zea mays L., N, EE 25347 Ma í z Food Fruit (seeds) Boiled or cooked with mutliple foods Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), parasites Styles (female flowers) Boiled in water, drink the solution Medicinal (urinary system), kidney problems Seeds Milled, boiled, drink the solution PORTULACACEAE Portulaca mundula I. M. Johnston, E, 25216 Verdolaga Food Leaves and stems Raw (previously disinfected with chlorine) or cooked with different foods Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens (pots) RANUNCULACEAE Clematis drummondii Torr. & A.Gray, N, EE 25405 Barba de chivo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 37 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use RHAMNACEAE Colubrina greggii S.Watson, N Colubrina Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens ROSACEAE Crataegus mexicana Moc. & Sess é ex DC., N, 25355 Tejocote Medicinal (endocrine system), diabetes Fruit Raw or boiled, drink the fruit pulp Medicinal (blood system) Fruit Raw or boiled, drink the fruit pulp Cydonia oblonga Mill., E, EE 25346 Membrillo Food Fruit Raw or boiled to make canned fruits Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl., E, EE 25406 N í spero Food Fruit Raw Medicinal (endocrine and blood systems), diabetes and arterial hypertension Fruit Raw, liquefied in water Malus domestica Borkh., E, EE 25343 Manzana Food Fruit Raw Food Canned fruits Boiled Alcoholic beverages Fruit Fermented Prunus armeniaca L., E, EE 25344 Chabacano Food Fruit Raw Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Prunus domestica L., E, EE 25345 Ciruelo Food Fruit Raw Prunus persica (L.) Batsch, E, EE 25150 Durazno Food Fruit Raw Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Purshia plicata (D.Don) Henr., N, EE 25460 Rosa de castilla Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), diarrhea Leaves Boiled, drink the solution Rosa montezumae Humb. & Bonpl. ex Redout & Thory, N, EE 25461 Rosa Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens RUTACEAE Casimiroa pringlei (S. Wats.) Engl., N, EE 25342 Manguito Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Food Fruit Raw Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck, E, EE 25404 Lim ó n Food Fruit Raw Medicinal (respiratory system), cough, chest pain, throat pain Leaves and fruit juice Boiled, drink the solution Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck, E, EE 25341 Naranja Food Fruit Raw Medicinal (respiratory system), cough, chest pain, throat pain Leaves and fruit peel and fruit juice Boiled, drink the solution Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Helietta parvifolia (A. Gray) Benth., N, EE 25215 Barreta Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Construction Wood Dried, piles and columns for houses, fences (very durable wood) Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 38 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Ruta graveolens L., E, EE 25221 Ruda Medicinal (respiratory system), cold Leaves and stems Boiled Zanthoxylum fagara (L.) Sarg., N, EE 25247 Colima Construction Wood Dried, piles and columns for houses Forage Leaves Raw Medicinal (respiratory system), asthma Leaves Boiled, drink the solution Medicinal (skeletal-muscular system), arthritis Leaves Boiled, drink the solution SALICACEAE Populus mexicana Wesm. Ex DC., N, EE 25248 Á lamo, chopo Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Salix nigra Marshall, N, EE 25462 Sauce Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Fuel Wood Dried SAPINDACEAE Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm., E, EE 25238 Alfombrilla Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens SCROPHULARIACEAE Leucophyllum frutescens (Berland.) I. M Johnst., N, EE 25161 Cenizo Medicinal (endocrine system), hepatitis Whole plant Cut into pieces, boiled, drink and take a bath with the solution Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Religious rites Branches and leaves Part of the floral bouquets used in prayers and pilgrimages SOLANACEAE Capsicum annum var glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill, N, EE 25217 Chile piqu í n, chile quip í n Food (condiment) Fruit Raw Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Medicinal (respiratory system), cough, phlegm Fruit (milled) Liquefied in water, drink (very spicy drink) Capsicum annum var glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill, N, EE 25217 b Chile japon é s Food (condiment) Fruit Raw Ornamental Whole plant Planted in public and private gardens Capsicum annum var glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill, N, EE 25217 c Chile morr ó n Food (condiment) Fruit Raw Capsicum annum var glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill, N, EE 25217 d Chile jalapeño Food (condiment) Fruit Raw Capsicum annum var glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill, N, EE 25217 e Chile serrano Food (condiment) Fruit Raw Medicinal (respiratory system), cough, phlegm Fruit (milled) Liquefied in water, drink (very spicy drink) Datura stramonium L., N, EE 25339 Toloache Falling in love Leaves and seeds Leaves (boiled in water, drink the solution), seeds (raw, chew and swallow)

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 39 of 43 Table 1. Cont Scientific Name Common Name Uses (System) Part Used Method of Use Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., E, EE 25403 Tomate Food Fruit Raw or cooked with other foods Medicinal (skeletal-muscular system), muscular pain Fruit Raw, pulp, use as cataplasm Physalis philadelphica Lam., N, EE 25260 Tomate de fresadilla Food Fruit Mixed with other foods, broths, sauces and stews Solanum ovigerum Dunal, E, EE 25463 Huevitos Ornamental, by its fruits (egg-like) Whole plant Planted in private gardens Solanum tuberosum L., E, EE 25464 Papa Food Root Mixed with other foods, broths, sauces and stews TURNERACEAE Turnera diffusa Willd. ex Schult., N, EE 25340 Damiana, hierba del venado Medicinal (genitourinary system) Leaves, stems and inflorescences Boiled in water, drink the solution Forage Whole plant Raw URTICACEAE Urtica dioica L., N, EE 25402 Hiedra Medicinal (blood system), purify the blood Whole plant Boiled in water, drink the solution VERBENCEAE Lippia graveloens Kunth, N, EE 25400 Or é gano Food (condiment) Leaves Dried, added to different foods, broths and stews Verbena canescens Kunth, N, EE 25401 Verbena Medicinal (nervous system), insomnia Leaves and stems Boiled in water, drink solution and bathe with the solution VITACEAE Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch., N, EE 25160 Viña virgen Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Vitis berlandieri Planch., N, EE 25338 Parra, vid Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens Food Fruit Raw XANTHORRHOEACEAE Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f., E, EE 25250 S á bila Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), gastritis Leaves Pulp, milled, liquefied, drink the solution Medicinal (dermic system), hair restauration; dermical wounds Leaves Pulp, smeared pulp all over hair; raw, smeared milled pulp in wounded area Ornamental Whole plant Planted in private gardens ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Larrea tridentata (Sess é & Moc. ex DC.) Coville, N, EE 25399 Gobernadora Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), spasms Leaves Boiled in water, drink the solution Medicinal (dermic system), bad smell Leaves Boiled in water, wash bad smelling parts of body Smelly feet Leaves Dried, put leaves inside shoes Cleaning the interior of car radiators Leaves Boiled in water, drained hot solution into radiator ZINGIBERACEAE Zingiber officinale Roscoe, E, EE 25398 Jengibre Food (condiment) Root Raw, cut into the pieces Medicinal (gastrointestinal system), intestinal inflammation, fever Root Raw, liquefied, drink the solution Medicinal (dermic system), external wounds Root Raw, milled, smeared in wounded areas

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 40 of 43 References 1 Singh, B.; Singh, B.; Kishor, A.; Singh, S.; Bhat, M.N.; Surmal, O.; Musarella, C.M. Exploring Plant-Based Ethnomedicine and Quantitative Ethnopharmacology: Medicinal Plants Utilized by the Population of Jasrota Hill in Western Himalaya Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 7526. [ CrossRef ] 2 Bhat, M.N.; Singh, B.; Surmal, O.; Singh, B.; Shivgotra, V.; Musarella, C.M. Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: Safeguarding Medical Practices and Traditional Uses of Kashmir Regions Biology 2021 , 10 , 851. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 3 Khanum, H.; Ishtiaq, M.; Bhatti, K.H.; Hussain, I.; Azeem, M.; Mehwish, M.; Hussain, T.; Mushtaq, W.; Thind, S.; Bashir, R.; et al. Ethnobotanical and conservation studies of tree flora of Shiwalik mountainous range of District Bhimber Azad and Kashmir, Pakistan PLoS ONE 2022 , 17 , e 0262338. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 4 Jernigan, K.A.; Belichenko, O.S.; Kolosova, V.B.; Orr, D.J. Naukan ethnobotany in post-Soviet times: Lost edibles and new medicinals J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2017 , 13 , 61. [ CrossRef ] 5 Packer, J.; Turpin, G.; Ens, E.; Venkataya, B.; Community Mbabaram; Rangers, Y.; Hunter, J. Building partnerships for linking biomedical science with traditional knowledge of customary medicines: A case study with two Australian Indigenous communities J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2019 , 15 , 69. [ CrossRef ] 6 Molares, S.; Ladio, A. Ethnobotanical review of the Mapuche medicinal flora: Use patterns on a regional scale J. Ethnopharmacol 2009 , 122 , 251–260. [ CrossRef ] 7 Silva, A.L.; Tamashiro, J.; Begossi, A. Ethnobotany of Riverine Populations from the Rio Negro, Amazonia (Brazil) J. Ethnobiol 2007 , 27 , 46–72. [ CrossRef ] 8 De- Á vila, A. La diversidad lingü í stica y el conocimiento etnobiol ó gico. In Capital Natural de M é xico, Conocimiento Actual de la Biodiversidad , 1 st ed.; CONABIO, Ed.; CONABIO: Mexico City, Mexico, 2008; pp. 497–556 9 Lira, R.; Casas, A.; Blancas, J Ethnobotany of Mexico, Interactions of People and Plants in Mesoam é rica , 1 st ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2016. [ CrossRef ] 10 Narv á ez-Elizondo, R.E.; Gonz á lez-Elizondo, M.; Castro-Castro, A.; Gonz á lez-Elizondo, M.S.; Tena-Flores, J.A.; Chairez- Hern á ndez, I. Comparison of traditional knowledge about edible plants among young Southern Tepehuans of Durango, Mexico Bot. Sci 2021 , 99 , 834–849. [ CrossRef ] 11 Bonta, M.; Pulido-Silva, M.T.; Diego-Vargas, T.; Vite-Reyes, A.; Vovides, A.P.; Cibri á n-Jaramillo, A. Ethnobotany of Mexican and northern Central American cycads (Zamiaceae) J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2019 , 15 , 4. [ CrossRef ] 12 Madamombe-Manduna, I.; Vibrans, H.; V á zquez-Garc í a, V. G é nero y conocimientos etnobot á nicos en M é xico y Zimbabwe, un estudio comparativo. Sociedades rurales Prod. Y Medio Ambiente 2009 , 9 , 21–48 13 Estrada-Castill ó n, E.; Villarreal-Quintanilla, J..; Encina-Dom í nguez, J.A.; Jurado-Ybarra, E.; Cu é llar-Rodr í guez, L.G.; Garza- Zambrano, P.; Ar é valo-Sierra, J.R.; Cant ú -Ayala, C.M.; Himmelsbach, W.; Salinas-Rodr í guez, M.M.; et al. Ethnobotanical biocultural diversity by rural communities in the Cuatroci é negas Valley, Coahuila; Mexico J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2021 , 17 , 21 [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 14 Salick, J.; Fang, Z.; Byg, A. Eastern Himalayan alpine plant ecology, Tibetan ethnobotany, and climate change Glob. Environ Chang 2009 , 19 , 147–155. [ CrossRef ] 15 Abid, F.; Afza, R.; Mustafa, G. Ethnobotany and sustainable utilization of plants in the Potohar Plateau, Pakistan. In Biodi-Versity, Conservation and Sustainability in Asia Prospects and Challenges in South and Middle Asia , 1 st ed.; Öztürk, M., Mulk-Khan, S., Altay, V., Efe, R., Egamberdieva, D., Khassanov, F.O., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2022; pp. 911–929 16 Berkes, F. Traditional ecological knowlegde in perspective. In Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases , 2 nd ed.; International Programo n Traditional Ecological Knowledge/International Development Research Centre/Canadian Museum of Nature: Otario, Canada, 1993; pp. 1–10 17 Pierotti, R.; Wildcat, D. Traditional ecological knowledge: The thrid alternative (comentary) Ecol. Appl 2000 , 10 , 1333–1340 [ CrossRef ] 18 Pauli, N.; Abbott, L.K.; Negrete-Yankelevich, S.; Andr é s, P. Farmes ´ knowledge and use of soil fauna in agriculture: A worldwide review Ecol. Soc 2021 , 3 , 19 19 Hunn, E. The Utilitarian Factor in Folk Biological Classification Am. Anthropol 1982 , 84 , 830–847. [ CrossRef ] 20 Hunn, E. A Zapotec natural history. In Tree, Herbs and Flowers, Birds, Beasts, and Bungs in the Life of San Juan Gbëë, 1 st ed ; The University of Arizona Press: Tucson, AZ, USA, 2008 21 Nabhan, G.P.; Daugherty, E.; Hartung, T. Health Benefits of the Diverse Volatile Oils in Native Plants of Ancient Ironwood-Giant Cactus Forests of the Sonoran Desert: An Adaptation to Climate Change? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022 , 19 , 3250 [ CrossRef ] 22 Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Ind í genas (INALI). Cat á logo de las lenguas ind í genas nacionales: Variantes lingü í sticas de M é xico con sus autodenominaciones y referencias geoestad í sticas. In Primera Secci ó n ; Diario Oficial de la Federaci ó n M é xico: Mexico City, Mexico, 2009 23 Rzedowski, J Vegetaci ó n de M é xico , 1 st ed.; Editorial Limusa: CDMX, Mexico, 1978 24 Estrada, E.; Soto, B.; Garza, M.; Villarreal, J.A.; Jim é nez, J.; Pando, M.; S á nchez-Salas, J.; Scott-Morales, L.; Cotera-Correa, L Medicinal plants in the southern region of the State of Nuevo Le ó n, M é xico J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2012 , 8 , 45. [ CrossRef ]

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 41 of 43 25 Estrada-Castill ó n, E.; Villarreal-Quintanilla, J.A.; Rodr í guez-Salinas, M.M.; Encinas-Dom í nguez, A.; Gonz á lez-Rodr í guez, H.; Romero-Figueroa, G.; Ar é valo, J.R. Ethnobotanical Survey of Useful Species in Bustamante, Nuevo Le ó n, Mexico Hum. Ecol 2017 , 46 , 117–132. [ CrossRef ] 26 Estrada, E.; Villarreal, J.A.; Cant ú , C.; Cabral, I.; Scott, L.; Yen, C. Ethnobotany in the Cumbres de Monterrey National Park, Nuevo Le ó n, M é xico J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2007 , 3 , 8. [ CrossRef ] 27 Estrada-Castill ó n, E.; Garza-L ó pez, M.; Villarreal-Quintanilla, J Á .; Salinas-Rodr í guez, M.M.; Soto-Mata, B.E.; Gonz á lez-Rodr í guez, H.; Gonz á lez-Uribe, D.U.; Cant ú -Silva, I.; Carrillo-Parra, A.; Cant ú -Ayala, C. Ethnobotany in Rayones, Nuevo Le ó n, M é xico J Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2014 , 10 , 62. [ CrossRef ] 28 Ceuterick, M.; Vandebroek, I.; Torry, B.; Pieroni, A. Cross-cultural adaptation in urban ethnobotany: The Colombian folk pharmacopoeia in London J. Ethnopharmacol 2008 , 120 , 342–359. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 29 Vandebroek, I.; Balick, M.J. Globalization and Loss of Plant Knowledge: Challenging the Paradigm PLoS ONE 2012 , 7 , e 37643 [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 30 Abdul Aziz, M.; Ullah, Z.; Pieroni, A. Wild Food Plant Gathering among Kalasha, Yidgha, Nuristani and Khowar Speakers in Chitral, NW Pakistan Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 9176. [ CrossRef ] 31 Perrino, E.V.; Wagensommer, R.P. Crop Wild Relatives (CWRs) Threatened and Endemic to Italy: Urgent Actions for Protection and Use Biology 2022 , 11 , 193. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 32 Ramirez, C.R. Ethnobotany and the Loss of Traditional Knowledge in the 21 st Century Ethnobot. Res. Appl 2007 , 5 , 245–247 [ CrossRef ] 33 Torres-Avilez, W.; de Medeiros, P.M.; Albuquerque, U.P. Effect of Gender on the Knowledge of Medicinal Plants: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Evidence-Based Complement. Altern. Med 2016 , 2016 , 6592363. [ CrossRef ] 34 Morrone, J.J. Hacia una s í ntesis biogeogr á fica de M é xico Rev. Mex. Biodiv 2005 , 76 , 2. [ CrossRef ] 35 Morrone, J.J. Mexican biogeographic provinces: Map and shapefiles Zootaxa 2017 , 4277 , 277–279. [ CrossRef ] 36 Instituto Nacional de Estad í stica y Geograf í a (INEGI) S í ntesis Geogr á fica de Nuevo Le ó n ; Secretar í a de Programaci ó n y Presupuesto: Nuevo Le ó n, Mexico, 2020 37 Gonz á lez-Medrano, F Las Comunidades Vegetales de M é xico , 2 nd ed.; Secretar í a del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Natura-les/Instituto Nacional de Ecolog í a: Mexico City, Mexico, 2004 38 Estrada, E.; Ar é valo, J.R.; Villarreal, J.A.; Salinas-Rodr í guez, M.M.; Encina-Dom í nguez, J.A.; Gonz á lez-Rodr í guez, H.; Cant ú - Ayala, C.M. Classification and ordination of main plant communities along an altitudinal gradient in the arid and temperate climates of northeastern Mexico Sci. Nat 2015 , 102 , 59. [ CrossRef ] 39 Villarreal-Quintanilla, J.A.; Estrada-Castill ó n, E. Flora de Nuevo Le ó n. In Listados Flor í sticos de M é xico XXIV , 1 st ed.; Univer-sidad Nacional Aut ó noma de M é xico: Mexico City, Mexico, 2008 40 Thiers, B. Index Herbariorum: A Global Directory of Public Herbaria and Associated Staff. New York Botanical Garden ´ s Virtual Herbarium. 2022. Available online: http://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/ih (accessed on 25 June 2021) 41 Martin, G.J Ethnobotany , 1 st ed.; Chapman & Hall: London, UK, 1995 42 International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE). ISE Code of Ethics. 2006. Available online: http://ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics/ (accessed on 15 October 2021) 43 Albuquerque, U.P.; Cunha, L.; Lucena, R.; Alves, R.R.N Methods and Techniques in Ethnobiology and Ethnoecology , 1 st ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2014. [ CrossRef ] 44 Zar, J.H Bioststistical Analysis , 1 st ed.; Prentice Hall: New York, NY, USA, 1999 45 Hammer, Ø.; Harper, D.A.T Paleontological Data An á lisis , 1 st ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Blackwell, MA, USA, 2006 46 Silva, V.A.; Albuquerque, U.P. T é cnicas para an á lise de dados etnobot â nicos. In M é todos e T é cnicas na Pesquisa Etnobotanica , 1 st ed.; Albuquerque, P., Paiva de Lucena, R.F., Cunha, L.V., Eds.; NUPEEA: Pernambuco, Brazil, 2004; pp. 63–88 47 Friedman, J.; Zohara, Y.; Amotz, D.; Palewitch, D. A preliminary classification of the healing potential of medicinal plants, based on a rational analysis of an a rational analysis of an ethnopharmacological field survey among Bedouins in the Negev Desert, Israel J. Ethnopharmacol 1986 , 16 , 275–287. [ CrossRef ] 48 Wilken, M.A. An ethnobotany of Baja California ´ s Kumeyaay Indians. 2012. Available online: https://digitallibrary.sdsu.edu/ islandora/object/sdsu%3 A 3815 (accessed on 25 October 2021) 49 Farf á n, B.; Casas, A.; Ibarra-Manr í quez, G.; P é rez-Negr ó n, E. Mazahua Ethnobotany and Subsistence in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico Econ. Bot 2007 , 61 , 173–191. [ CrossRef ] 50 Paredes-Flores, M.; Lira, R.; D á vila, P. Estudio etnobot á nico de Zapotitl á n Salinas, Puebla Acta Bot. Mex 2007 , 79 , 13–61 [ CrossRef ] 51 Zhang, N.; Zheng, X.; Wang, X. Assessment of Aesthetic Quality of Urban Landscapes by Integrating Objective and Subjective Factors: A Case Study for Riparian Landscapes Front. Ecol. Evol 2022 , 9 , 5. [ CrossRef ] 52 Lazos-Chavero, E.; Á lvarez-Buylla, M.A. Ethnobotany in a tropical-humid region: The home gardens of Balzpaote, Veracruz, Mexico J. Ethnob 1988 , 8 , 45–79 53 Rend ó n-Correa, A.; Fern á ndez-Nava, R. Plantas con potencial uso ornamental del estado de Morelos, M é xico Polibot á nica 2007 , 23 , 121–165 54 P é rez-Negr ó n, E.; D á vila, P.; Casas, A. Use of columnar cacti in the Tehuac á n Valley, Mexico: Perspectives for sustainable management of non-timber forest products J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2014 , 10 , 79. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 42 of 43 55 Heinrich, M.; Ankli, A.; Frei, B.; Weimann, C.; Sticher, O. Medicinal plants in Mexico: Healers’ consensus and cultural importance Soc. Sci. Med 1998 , 47 , 1859–1871. [ CrossRef ] 56 Cruz-Vega, D.E.; Verde-Star, M.J.; Salinas-Gonz á lez, N.; Rosales-Hern á ndez, B.; Estrada-Garc í a, I.; Mendez-Arag ó n, P.; Carranza- Rosales, P.; Gonz á lez-Garza, M.T.; Castro-Garza, J. Antimycobacterial activity of Juglans regia , Juglans mollis , Carya illinoensis and Bocconia frutescens Phytotherapy Res 2008 , 22 , 557–559. [ CrossRef ] 57 Ghogar, A.; Jiraungkoorskul, K.; Jiraungkoorskul, W. Paper Flower, Bougainvillea spectabilis : Update Properties of Traditional Medicinal Plant J. Nat. REMEDIES 2016 , 16 , 82–87. [ CrossRef ] 58 P í o-Le ó n, J.F.; Nieto-Garibay, A.; Le ó n-de-la Luz, J.L.; Delgado-Vargas, F.D.; Vega-Aviña, R.; Ortega-Rubio, A. Plantas silvestres consumidas como t é s recreativos por grupos de rancheros en Baja California Sur, M é xico Acta Bot. Mex 2018 , 123 , 7–19 [ CrossRef ] 59 Lara-Reimers, E.A.; Fern á ndez-Cusimamani, E.; Lara-Rodr í guez, E.A.; Zepeda-del-Valle, J.M.; Polesny, Z.; Pawera, L. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in Zacatecas state, Mexico Acta Soc. Bot. Pol 2018 , 87 , 247–253. [ CrossRef ] 60 WHO World Health Organization. “ICD-10 Version:2010” International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 2012. Available online: https://www.who.int/en (accessed on 14 March 2022) 61 Arsenov, D.; Župunski, M.; Pajevi´c, S.; Nemeš, I.; Simin, N.; Alnuqaydan, A.M.; Watson, M.; Aloliqi, A.A.; Mimica-Duki´c, N. Roots of Apium graveolens and Petroselinum crispum —Insight into Phenolic Status against Toxicity Level of Trace Elements Plants 2021 , 10 , 1785. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 62 Supratman, U.; Fujita, T.; Akiyama, K.; Hayashi, H.; Murakami, A.; Sakai, H.; Koshimizu, K.; Ohigashi, H. Anti-tumor Promoting Activity of Bufadienolides from Kalanchoe pinnata and K. daigremontiana × butiflora Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem 2001 , 65 , 947–949 [ CrossRef ] 63 Oviedo-Ch á vez, T.; Ram í rez-Apan, M.; Soto-Hern á ndez, M.; Mart í nez-V á zquez, M. Principles of the bark of Amphipterygium adstringens (Julianaceae) with anti-inflammatory activity Phytomedicine 2004 , 11 , 436–445. [ CrossRef ] 64 G ó mez-Hern á ndez, M.A.; Flores-Merino, M.V.; S á nchez-Flores, J.E.; Burrola-Aguilar, C.; Zepeda-G ó mez, C.; Nieto-Trujillo, A.; Estrada-Z ú ñiga, M.E. Photoprotective Activity of Buddleja cordata Cell Culture Methanolic Extract on UVB-Irradiated 3 T 3-Swiss Albino Fibroblasts Plants 2021 , 10 , 266. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 65 Neal, J.M.; Sato, P.T.; Howald, W.N.; McLaughlin, J.L. Peyote Alkaloids: Identification in the Mexican Cactus Pelecyphora aselliformis Ehrenberg Science 1972 , 176 , 1131–1133. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 66 Lowe, H.; Steele, B.; Bryant, J.; Toyang, N.; Ngwa, W. Non-Cannabinoid Metabolites of Cannabis sativa L. with Therapeutic Potential Plants 2021 , 10 , 400. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 67 Jari´c, S.; Mitrovi´c, M.; Pavlovi´c, P. Review of Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Study of Thymus serpyllum L Evidence-Based Complement. Altern. Med 2015 , 2015 , 101978. [ CrossRef ] 68 de Wet, H.; Nkwanyana, M.; van Vuuren, S. Medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in northern Maputaland, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa J. Ethnopharmacol 2010 , 130 , 284–289. [ CrossRef ] 69 Guti é rrez-Tlahque, J.; Aguirre-Mancilla, C.L.; L ó pez-Palestina, C.; Fern á ndez, R.E.S.; Hern á ndez-Fuentes, A.D.; Torres-Valencia, J.M. Constituents, Antioxidant and Antifungal Properties of Jatropha dioica var dioica. Nat. Prod. Commun 2019 , 14 , 1934578 X 19852433. [ CrossRef ] 70 Khan, F.A.; Mahmood, T.; Ali, M.; Saeed, A.; Maalik, A. Pharmacological importance of an ethnobotanical plant: Capsicum annuum L Nat. Prod. Res 2014 , 28 , 1267–1274. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 71 Lentini, F.; Venza, F. Wild food plants of popular use in Sicily J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2007 , 3 , 15. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 72 Ezekwe, M.O.; Omara-Alwala, T.R.; Membrahtu, T. Nutritive characterization of purslane accessions as influenced by planting date Plant Foods Hum. Nutr 1999 , 54 , 183–191. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 73 Hecht, S.S.; Chung, F.L.; Richie, J.P.; Akerkar, S.A.; Borukhova, A.; Skowronski, L.; Carmella, S.G. Effects of watercress consumption on metabolism of a tobacco-specific lung carcinogen in smokers Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev 1995 , 4 , 877–884 74 Gill, C.I.R.; Haldar, S.; Boyd, L.A.; Bennett, R.; Whiteford, J.; Butler, M.; Pearson, J.R.; Bradbury, I.; Rowland, I.R. Watercress supplementation in diet reduces lymphocyte DNA damage and alters blood antioxidant status in healthy adults Am. J. Clin Nutr 2007 , 85 , 504–510. [ CrossRef ] 75 V á zquez-Alonso, M.T.; Bye, R.; L ó pez-Mata, L.; Pulido-Salas, M.T.P.; de Tapia, E.M.; Koch, S.D. Etnobot á nica de la cultura teotihuacana Bot. Sci 2014 , 92 , 563. [ CrossRef ] 76 Gentry, H.S. Origin of the common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris Econ. Bot 1969 , 23 , 55–69. [ CrossRef ] 77 Loko, L.E.Y.; Toffa, J.; Adjatin, A.; Akpo, A.J.; Orobiyi, A.; Dansi, A. Folk taxonomy and traditional uses of common bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) landraces by the sociolinguistic groups in the central region of the Republic of Benin J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2018 , 14 , 52. [ CrossRef ] 78 Jouad, H.; Haloui, M.; Rhiouani, H.; El Hilaly, J.; Eddouks, M. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diabetes, cardiac and renal diseases in the North centre region of Morocco (Fez–Boulemane) J. Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2001 , 77 , 175–182. [ CrossRef ] 79 Valero-Galv á n, J.; Reyna-Gonz á lez, M.; Chico-Romero, P.A.; Mart í nez-Ruiz, N.D.R.; N ú ñez-Gast é lum, J.A.; Monroy-Sosa, A.; Ruiz-May, E.; Fern á ndez, R.G. Seed Characteristics and Nutritional Composition of Pine Nut from Five Populations of P. cembroides from the States of Hidalgo and Chihuahua, Mexico Molecules 2019 , 24 , 2057. [ CrossRef ]

Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 12751 43 of 43 80 Hurrell, J.A.; Ulibarri, E.A.; Puentes, J.P.; Costantino, F.B.; Arenas, P.M.; Pochettino, M.L. Leguminosas medicinales y ali-menticias utilizadas en la conurbaci ó n Buenos Aires-La Plata, Argentina Bol. Lat. Car. Plantas Med. Arom 2011 , 10 , 443–455 81 Bussmann, R.W.; Zambrana, N.Y.P.; Sikharulidze, S.; Kikvidze, Z.; Kikodze, D.; Tchelidze, D.; Khutsishvili, M.; Batsatsashvili, K.; Hart, R.E. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed 2016 , 12 , 43. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 82 Singh, R.; De, S.; Belkheir, A Avena sativa (Oat), A Potential Neutraceutical and Therapeutic Agent: An Overview Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr 2013 , 53 , 126–144. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 83 Kennedy, D.O.; Bonnländer, B.; Lang, S.C.; Pischel, I.; Forster, J.; Khan, J.; Jackson, P.A.; Wightman, E.L. Acute and Chronic Effects of Green Oat (Avena sativa) Extract on Cognitive Function and Mood during a Laboratory Stressor in Healthy Adults: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study in Healthy Humans Nutrients 2020 , 12 , 1598. [ CrossRef ] 84 Sørensen, M. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. In Yam bean Pachyrhizus DC , 1 st ed.; International Plant Genetic Resources Institute: Rome, Italy, 1996 85 Saraiva, A.; Carrascosa, C.; Ramos, F.; Raheem, D.; Raposo, A. Agave Syrup: Chemical Analysis and Nutritional Profile, Applications in the Food Industry and Health Impacts Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022 , 19 , 7022. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 86 Camou-Guerrero, A.; Reyes-Garcia, V.; Mart í nez-Ramos, M.; Casas, A. Knowledge and Use Value of Plant Species in a Rar á muri Community: A Gender Perspective for Conservation Hum. Ecol 2007 , 36 , 259–272. [ CrossRef ] 87 Sotelo, A.; L ó pez-Garc í a, S.; Basurto-Peña, F. Content of Nutrient and Antinutrient in Edible Flowers of Wild Plants in Mexico Plant Foods Hum. Nutr 2007 , 62 , 133–138. [ CrossRef ] 88 del Castillo, R.F.; Trujillo, S. Ethnobotany of Ferocactus histrix and Echinocactus platyacanthus (Cactaceae) in the Semiarid Central Mexico: Past, Present and Future Econ. Bot 1991 , 45 , 495–502. [ CrossRef ] 89 Griffith, M.P. The origins of an important cactus crop, Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae): New molecular evidence Am. J. Bot 2004 , 91 , 1915–1921. [ CrossRef ] 90 Inglese, P.; Basile, F.; Schirra, M. Cactus pear fruit production. In Cacti: Biology and Uses , 1 st ed.; Nobel, P., Ed.; University of California/Berkeley: California, CA, USA, 2002. [ CrossRef ] 91 Lira, R.; Caballero, J. Ethnobotany of the Wild Mexican Cucurbitaceae Econ. Bot 2002 , 56 , 380–398. [ CrossRef ] 92 Valverde, B.E.; Gressel, J Dealing with the Evolution and Spread of Sorghum Halepense Glyphosate Resistance in Argentina , 1 st ed.; Consultancy Report to SENASA: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2006 93 Dejene, T.; Agamy, M.S.; Ag ú ndez, D.; Mart í n-Pinto, P. Ethnobotanical Survey of Wild Edible Fruit Tree Species in Lowland Areas of Ethiopia Forests 2020 , 11 , 177. [ CrossRef ] 94 Łuczaj, Ł. Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants of Slovakia Acta Soc. Bot. Pol 2012 , 81 , 245–255. [ CrossRef ] 95 Segura, S.; Fresnedo, J.; Mathuriau, C.; L ó pez, J.; Andr é s, J.; Muratalla, A. The edible fruit species in Mexico Genet. Resour. Crop Evol 2018 , 65 , 1767–1793. [ CrossRef ] 96 Kargıo ˘glu, M.; Cenkci, S.; Serteser, A.; Konuk, M.; Vural, G. Traditional Uses of Wild Plants in the Middle Aegean Region of Turkey Hum. Ecol 2010 , 38 , 429–450. [ CrossRef ] 97 De la Torre, L.; Cummins, I.; Logan-Hines, E Agave americana and Furcraea andina: Key Species to Andean Cultures in Ecuador Bot. Sci 2018 , 96 , 246–266. [ CrossRef ] 98 Hamblin-Hart, K.; Cox, P.A. A cladistic approach to comparative ethnobotany: Dye plants of the southwestern United States J Ethnobiol 2000 , 2082 , 303–325 99 Casas, A.; Caballero, J.; Valiente-Baunet, A. Use, management and domestication of columnar cacti in South Central Mexico: A historical perspective J. Ethnobiol 1999 , 19 , 71–95 100. Figueredo-Urbina, C.J.; Á lvarez-R í os, G.D.; Z á rraga, L.C. Edible flowers commercialized in local markets of Pachuca de Soto, Hidalgo, Mexico Bot. Sci 2021 , 100 , 120–138. [ CrossRef ] 101. Pike, C.C.; Williams, M.; Brennan, A.; Woeste, K.; Jacobs, J.; Hoban, S.; Moore, M.; Romero-Severson, J. Save Our Species: A Blueprint for Restoring Butternut ( Juglans cinerea ) across Eastern North America J. For 2020 , 119 , 196–206. [ CrossRef ] 102. Fernandes-de-Ara ú jo, F.; de-Paulo, F.D.; Neri-Numa, I.A.; Pastore, G.M. Underutilized plants of the Cactaceae family: Nutritional aspects and technological applications Food Chem 2021 , 362 , 130196. [ CrossRef ] 103. Felger, R.; Joyal, E. The palms (Arecaceae) of Sonora, Mexico Aliso 1999 , 18 , e 22275. [ CrossRef ] 104. Saslis-Lagoudakis, C.H.; Klitgaard, B.B.; Forest, F.; Francis, L.; Savolainen, V.; Williamson, E.M.; Hawkins, J.A. The Use of Phylogeny to Interpret Cross-Cultural Patterns in Plant Use and Guide Medicinal Plant Discovery: An Example from Pterocarpus (Leguminosae) PLoS ONE 2011 , 6 , e 22275. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 105. G ó mez, Y.G.; Alc á ntara, M.R.M.; Zer ó n, H.M Eryngium heterophyllum and Amphipterygium adstringens Tea Effect on Triglyceride Levels; A Clinical Trial Tradit. Integr. Med 2019 , 4 , 22–27. [ CrossRef ] 106. Agyare, C.; Appiah, T.; Boakye, Y.D.; Apenteng, J.A. Petroselium crispum: A review. In Medicinal Spicies and Vegetables from Africa , 1 st ed.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 527–547 107. Nieto, G. Biological Activities of Three Essential Oils of the Lamiaceae Family Medicines 2017 , 4 , 63. [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 108. Rolnik, A.; Olas, B. The plants of the Asteraceae family as agents in the protection of human health Int. J. Mol. Sci 2021 , 22 , 3009 [ CrossRef ]