Fragmented Forest Patches in the Indian Himalayas Preserve Unique Components...

[Full title: Fragmented Forest Patches in the Indian Himalayas Preserve Unique Components of Biodiversity: Investigation of the Floristic Composition and Phytoclimate of the Unexplored Bani Valley]

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sustainability Article Fragmented Forest Patches in the Indian Himalayas Preserve Unique Components of Biodiversity: Investigation of the Floristic Composition and Phytoclimate of the Unexplored Bani Valley Sumit Singh 1,2,† , Bikarma Singh 1,3, * ,† , Opender Surmal 1,2 , Mudasir Nazir Bhat 1,2 , Bishander Singh 4 and Carmelo Maria Musarella 5 Citation: Singh, S.; Singh, B.; Surmal, O.; Bhat, M.N.; Singh, B.; Musarella, C.M. Fragmented Forest Patches in the Indian Himalayas Preserve Unique Components of Biodiversity: Investigation of the Floristic Composition and Phytoclimate of the Unexplored Bani Valley Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su 13116063 Academic Editors: Kevin Cianfaglione, Angela Curtean-B ă n ă duc and Doru B ă n ă duc Received: 22 March 2021 Accepted: 20 May 2021 Published: 27 May 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Copyright: © 2021 by the authors Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/) 1 Academyof Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India; ssumitthakur 14@gmail.com (S.S.); rajputop 225@gmail.com (O.S.); mudii 644@gmail.com (M.N.B.) 2 Plant Sciences (Biodiversity and Applied Botany Division), CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu 180001, Jammu and Kashmir, India 3 Botanic Garden Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India 4 Department of Botany, Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah 802301, Bihar, India; bishander 85@gmail.com 5 Department of Agraria, Mediterranea University of Reggio Calabria, Feo di Vito snc, 89122 Reggio Calabria, Italy; carmelo.musarella@unirc.it * Correspondence: drbikarma.singh@nbri.res.in † First authors Abstract: Subtropical and temperate forests are amongst the most threatened habitats of Asia, due to large-scale habitat loss and the fragmentation of landscapes. Inspite of these, the Asiatic regions preserve their endemic biodiversity, and provide a favorable environment for the abundant growth of vegetation. In the Himalayas, many interior regions are still unexplored from a biodiversity perspective, due to remote locations and high snow-clad mountains. In this study, we investigated the unexplored Bani Valley in order to reduce the gap of uninventorized areas of rich biodiversity in the Himalayas and formulate plant conservation and management strategies. Thirteen field expedition tours were undertaken during 2017 and 2020 for data collection in different growing seasons in the study area. All plant species were collected as voucher samples, identified, and deposited in the internationally recognized Janaki Ammal Herbarium (acronym RRLH). GPS points were recorded in order to study the forest types and vegetation components of the study area. A total of 196 plant species belonging to 166 genera and 68 families were identified in Bani Valley, covering a total area of 2651 km 2 . Approximately 70.62% of the species were native and 29.38% were non-native In total, 46% of species were Indo-Malayan, followed by 22% Palearctic species. In angiosperms, dicotyledon species (68.37%) dominated Poales were the most dominant order, with 38 species (19.38%). The most abundant families were Poaceae with 29 species (14.79%), Fabaceae (17, 8.67%), Rosaceae , Cyperaceae , and Asteraceae (9, 4.59% each). The life form analysis showed 50% of species as phanerophytes, followed by therophytes (25.77%). The leaf size spectra show mesophyllous species (34.69%) as the dominant group. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants categorized Ailanthus altissima as endangered (EN), Aegle marmelos and Quercus oblongata as near threatened (NT), Ulmus wallichiana and Plantago lanceolata as vulnerable (VU), Taxus baccata and 75 other species as least concern (LC), and 2 species as data deficient (DD). The remaining 113 species of plants had not been evaluated according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This study will help to shape conservation and management plans for threatened species for future implementation, and will help in biodiversity conservation. This study will serve as a database for future reference materials in terms of biodiversity management Keywords: biodiversity conservation; biological spectrum; phenology; leaf spectra; IUCN; native plants; Himalayas Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063. https://doi.org/10.3390/su 13116063 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

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Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 2 of 31 1. Introduction The origin of life on earth is a fascinating subject that can be studied through observations made today, and these observations, coupled with climate change over time, can provide answers as to how biodiversity has changed over time [ 1 ]. High-altitude mountainous belts safeguard important biodiversity and the scenic, aesthetic value of landscapes [ 2 – 5 ], provide ecosystem services to benefit human well-being, and are essential for a sustainable world [ 6 – 8 ]. Plant adaptation adjusts a life form to certain ecological conditions; thus, it has been widely used in the analysis of flora and vegetation [ 9 ]. The forms and structures of plant communities can be explored by classifying the species involved into categories reflecting their environmental relationships [ 10 – 13 ], and thus, plant communities can also be categorized in terms of leaf size and leaf form [ 14 , 15 ]. It has been shown that studying the biological spectrum is useful in comparing geographically separated plant communities, and is regarded as an indicator of changing environments [ 16 ]. Large-scale patterns of plant distribution are very well known, but regionalor local-scale study of plant assemblage is important for local action in biodiversity conservation [ 17 ]. Raunkiaer’s classification, interlinked to climatic conditions and developed for the climate, is usually the temperate season, as the winter frost ends the plants’ growing season [ 17 – 19 ]. Under this system, the life-forms were classified into five main groups, i.e., phanerophytes, chamaephytes, hemicryptophytes, cryptophytes, and therophytes [ 20 ]. This is supported by the observation that grassland vegetation in high-altitude regions is usually dominated by hemicryptophytes [ 21 ]. Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum indicates a phanerophyte community, and the deviation determines the phytoclimatic nature of the vegetation composition of any particular given region [ 22 ]. Determining the difference between Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum and the biological spectrum of life-forms allows us to discover the dominant lifeform that characterizes the phytoclimate of the study area in question [ 23 ]. Therefore, the life form study is an important factor in ecological studies and vegetation description, ranking next to floristic composition and biodiversity surveys [ 24 , 25 ]. High mountain areas occupy 3% of the world’s surface, wherein there are about 10,000 plant species, which represents approximately 4% of the total species diversity of the planet [ 26 ]. However, as one ascends a mountain, a reduction in the number species is observed, due to the harsh environmental conditions [ 27 ]. On the other hand, the mountainous regions (including the valleys and the lowlands that surround the reliefs) show a great species richness, despite the species poverty of their peaks. This can be explained by considering that the maximum slope of an area can be understood as a proxy of its environmental heterogeneity [ 28 ]. In addition, mountains have great conservation value, harboring numerous endemic, rare, and/or threatened taxa and ecosystems [ 29 ]. However, this natural heritage is threatened by changes in landuse and by climate change [ 21 ]. The climatic changes are related to changes in the distribution of species [ 30 ]. Thus, their altitudinal changes are reliably reflected in changes in temperature [ 31 ], responding more quickly to climate warming than other regions [ 32 , 33 ]. For this reason, research in mountainous areas—including the botanization of species, carefully registering the collection altitudes—is of great interest [ 34 ]. It is on the southern slopes of the Himalayas that the greatest unevenness is recorded globally. In addition, this was the pioneer mountain range in the series of tectonic movements that wiped out the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. This movement is still ongoing, and will culminate in the closure of the Strait of Gibraltar. A comparison of the general patterns obtained in the Himalayas (Bani Valley) and other places in this group of “circum-Tethys” ranges would enrich future research. At the other extreme, around the Strait of Gibraltar, are located the Betic ranges (Spain) and the Rif and Atlas Mountains (Morocco), whose endemic flora were studied by P é rez-Garc í a et al. [ 35 ]. Compared to the flora of the Himalayas (Bani Valley), it is observed that the Betic and Rif Mountains’ flora have a lower weight than the Poaceae , in exchange for a large increase in Asteraceae , Caryophyllaceae , Fabaceae , and Lamiaceae . In addition, they show a greater presence of hemicryptophytes and chamaephytes, in exchange for a lower proportion of therophytes and phanerophytes.

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Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 3 of 31 In India, there are four major biodiversity hotspots: the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland. Of the reported 18,532 species of angiosperms from the country (ENVIS, 2021), about 50% of species are recorded in the Himalayas [ 36 ]. A lot of floristic and ecological research works have been carried out in geographic regions of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) at different times [ 37 – 39 ]; however, there are still lots of unexplored pockets in the Himalayas, which may be unexplored due to their extreme climate, unapproachable terrain, and the fear of cross-border terrorism issues [ 40 – 43 ]. Plant collection and the dissemination of data on the floristic composition and phytoclimatic variables can impart a lot of knowledge to mankind, and fill the gap of unexplored regions. The Kathua district of J&K is recognized as ”the Gateway to the Union Territory (UT)”and is bestowed with varied topography and mountainous climatic conditions [ 44 ]. It covers a total area of 2651 km 2 , whose altitude varies from 350 to 6000 m above mean sea level (AMSL). The region is surrounded by the Jammu district to the northwest, the Doda and Udhampur districts to the north, the state of Himachal Pradesh to the east, and the state of Punjab to the south. The terrain is very diverse, consisting of rich agricultural areas along the Punjab border, plains sweeping eastward to the foothills of the Himalayas, and the mountainous alpine region in the northeast [ 44 ]. The Indian Census of 2011 recorded the total population as 191,988 (available at https://censusindia.gov.in , accessed on 10 February 2021). The climatic conditions vary depending on the geographical location and altitude; plains areas experience a subtropical climate, and the mountainous region to the north experiences a temperate climate. Bani Valley is a mountainous part of this district that lies towards the extreme north of India, is a part of the Northwestern Himalayan Region, and is categorized as a region of the Shivalik range. The region is under-explored from a floristic point of view, and there is no literature available to date on its plant diversity or phytoclimatic conditions. Therefore, our aim was to undertake a detailed floristic investigation of the Bani Valley. The Bani Valley presents a unique climate, bestowed with natural beauty, vegetation, and topography for studying the biodiversity (especially for medicinal plants) of the Northwestern Himalayan Region. The present study of the vegetation composition of the Bani Valley could be used as an example in India for other similar vegetation types, and for phytoclimatic study in particular 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Area Bani Valley (Figure 1 ) is situated in the interior region of the Kathua district (J&K) It lies between latitude 32 ◦ 52 0 33.15 00 N and longitude 75 ◦ 48 0 14.53 00 E, and the elevation ranges from 1200 to 2001 m AMSL, covering a total area of 468 km 2 . The region is part of Western Himalaya, and the valley is situated at the bank of the SewaRiver, representing one of the northernmost parts of the Kathua district. This area is 85 km from the Basohli tehsil, and approximately 152 km from the town of Kathua and about 236 km from the UT capital, Jammu. The only way to reach the Bani Valley is by road The climate of the study region ranges from subtropical to temperate climates. The high mountainous hills of the Bani Valley are covered with snow and ice for 2–3 months per year. The different seasons prevailing in Bani Valley can be divided into four distinct intervals: summer, spring, rainy, and winter. The summer temperature varies from 18–45 ◦ C, and the winter temperature from 0–15 ◦ C. The annual rainfall varies from 1200–1530 mm. About 85% of rainfall is received in the monsoon season, i.e., from July to September. The sudden cloud burst and heavy rainfall can cause landslides, and these sometimes block the route to the Bani Valley. The heavy rainfall and landslides combined with stream waters cause havoc for the people.

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Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 4 of 31 Sustainability 2021 , 13 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 32 Figure 1. Location map of the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India. The climate of the study region ranges from subtropical to temperate climates. The high mountainous hills of the Bani Valley are covered with snow and ice for 2–3 months per year. The different seasons prevailing in Bani Valley can be divided into four distinct intervals: summer, spring, rainy, and winter. The summer temperature varies from 18–45 °C, and the winter temperature from 0–15 °C. The annual rainfall varies from 1200–1530 mm. About 85% of rainfall is received in the monsoon season, i.e., from July to September. The sudden cloud burst and heavy rainfall can cause landslides, and these sometimes block the route to the Bani Valley. The heavy rainfall and landslides combined with stream waters cause havoc for the people. Using Champion and Seth’s classification of forest types in India [45] as a reference, along with our own field observations, the forest types of Bani Valley can be divided into two categories, i.e., subtropical and temperate forests (Figure 2). The subtropical forests were sub-divided into two types—subtropical dry deciduous forests, and subtropical evergreen chir-pine forests. At lower altitudes, the trees were dominated by subtropical dry deciduous scrubs. The major dominant tree species of subtropical dry deciduous vegetation were Mallotus philipensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Ficus hispida L.f., Trema orientale (L.) Blume, Melia azedarach L., Toona sinensis (Juss.) M.Roem., Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze, Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle, and Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude. The major shrub species of subtropical dry deciduous vegetation were Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Hepper and J.R.I. Wood, Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm., Ototropis multiflora (DC.) H.Ohashi and K.Ohashi, Strobilanthes wallichii Nees, Cissampelos pariera Vell., and Rubus idaeus L. The dominant herbaceous species of subtropical dry deciduous vegetation were Trifolium pratense L., Lespedeza juncea (L.f.) Pers., Pilea scripta (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Wedd., and Urtica dioica L. The above make up the vegetation in the foothills of the Himalayas. Figure 1. Location map of the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India Using Champion and Seth’s classification of forest types in India [ 45 ] as a reference, along with our own field observations, the forest types of Bani Valley can be divided into two categories, i.e., subtropical and temperate forests (Figure 2 ). The subtropical forests were sub-divided into two types—subtropical dry deciduous forests, and subtropical evergreen chir-pine forests. At lower altitudes, the trees were dominated by subtropical dry deciduous scrubs. The major dominant tree species of subtropical dry deciduous vegetation were Mallotus philipensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Ficus hispida L.f., Trema orientale (L.) Blume, Melia azedarach L., Toona sinensis (Juss.) M.Roem., Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze, Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle, and Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude The major shrub species of subtropical dry deciduous vegetation were Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Hepper and J.R.I. Wood, Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm., Ototropis multiflora (DC.) H.Ohashi and K.Ohashi, Strobilanthes wallichii Nees, Cissampelos pariera Vell., and Rubus idaeus L. The dominant herbaceous species of subtropical dry deciduous vegetation were Trifolium pratense L., Lespedeza juncea (L.f.) Pers., Pilea scripta (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Wedd., and Urtica dioica L. The above make up the vegetation in the foothills of the Himalayas The forests at elevations upto 1600 m are subtropical evergreen chirpine vegetation Pinus roxburghii Sarg. is the most dominant tree species in chir-pine vegetation. The shrub species in evergreen chir-pine vegetation are Rubus ellipticus Sm., Cotinus coggygria Scop., and Desmodium elegans DC. The herb species found in evergreen chir-pine vegetation are Oreoseris gossypina (Royle) X.D.Xu and V.A.Funk, Barleria cristata L., Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees, Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Gross, Achyranthes aspera L., and Euphorbia hirta L. The vegetation components above 1600 m are mostly temperate, and are dominated by Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don forests. Oak forests are also the dominant vegetation at these altitudes. The dominant tree species of these forests are

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Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 5 of 31 C. deodara , Rhododendron arboreum Sm., Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl., Quercus oblongata D.Don, Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis, and Celtis australis L. The dominant shrubby vegetation of temperate climates is characterized by Zanthoxylum armatum DC., Prinsepia utilis Royle, Rubus niveus Thunb., Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd, and Berberis lycium Royle. The herb species of temperate vegetation are Valeriana jatamansi Jones ex Roxb., Viola canescens Wall., Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet, Galium aparine L., and some fern species, such as Pteris vittata L., Pteris cretica L., Polystichum polyblepharum (Roem. ex Kunze) C.Presl, and Asplenium dalhousieae Hook Sustainability 2021 , 13 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 32 Figure 2. Forest types of the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India. The forests at elevations upto 1600 m are subtropical evergreen chirpine vegetation. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. is the most dominant tree species in chir-pine vegetation. The shrub species in evergreen chir-pine vegetation are Rubus ellipticus Sm., Cotinus coggygria Scop., and Desmodium elegans DC. The herb species found in evergreen chir-pine vegetation are Oreoseris gossypina (Royle) X.D.Xu and V.A.Funk, Barleria cristata L., Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees, Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Gross, Achyranthes aspera L., and Euphorbia hirta L. The vegetation components above 1600 m are mostly temperate, and are dominated by Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don forests. Oak forests are also the dominant vegetation at these altitudes. The dominant tree species of these forests are C. deodara , Rhododendron arboreum Sm., Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl., Quercus oblongata D.Don, Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis, and Celtis australis L. The dominant shrubby vegetation of temperate climates is characterized by Zanthoxylum armatum DC., Prinsepia utilis Royle, Rubus niveus Thunb., Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd, and Berberis lycium Royle. The herb species of temperate vegetation are Valeriana jatamansi Jones ex Roxb., Viola canescens Wall., Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet, Galium aparine L., and some fern species, Figure 2. Forest types of the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India.

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Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 6 of 31 A total of 33 villages and 8096 households fall in the jurisdiction of Bani Valley, representing 45,996 people, of whom 23,889 are male and 22,107 are female; the recorded population density is 250 km − 2 ( https://www.censusindia.co.in , accessed on 10 February 2021). The literacy rate is 44.27% (male: 57.16%; female: 42.84%). Bani tehsil is home to some Nomadic groups, such as Gujjars and Bakarwals. These are semi-pastoral ethnic communities of J&K. They always move seasonally here and there as they have no permanent settlements. On the arrival of summer, these communities start their journey towards high altitude areas along with their livestock. With the onset of unfavorable conditions, they come down and settle in the plains areas of the Bani Valley 2.2. Data Collection 2.2.1. Field Surveys Thirteen field surveys and exploration tours were undertaken in the Bani Valley from March 2017 to July 2020 in different seasons, in order to study the botanical and ecological aspects of the vegetation composition. Floristic surveys were carried out in order to collect plant samples (angiosperms, gymnosperms, and lycophytes and ferns) from different altitudes of the study area. Lower plants (e.g., bryophytes, algae, fungi, lichens, and mosses) were excluded from this study. A total of 24 plots were laid out by first measuring randomly selected, 50 m-long straight transects, with the help of a measuring tape, at different locations in the study area. Two altitude gradients (1201–1600 m a.m.s.l. for subtropical forest and 1601–2000 m a.m.s.l. for temperate forest) were selected. Flagtype points were marked and placed at 10 m intervals along the transect line, and also at distances of 10 m on both sides of the line, measured at right angles from the transect angle, thus marking off five 10 m × 10 m quadrats on each side. Small transect lines were selected because the area had fragmented forest patches due to the occurrence of high hills and valleys, steep slopes, and deep gorges in the study area. Within each quadrat, all stems (trees, shrubs, and herbs) were counted and recorded. A total of 240 quadrats (120 on each side of the 50-m line) for trees (10 m × 10 m), shrubs (5 m × 5 m), and herbs (1 m × 1 m) were used for the study. The diameters of the trees were measured using a diameter tape at 1 m height or above the buttress roots, and the trees’ heights were recorded using clinometers. For multi-stem herbs (Poaceae), we divided the total stem number of the herbs by the mean number of stems per plant falling inside a 1 m × 1 m quadrat, and rounded up the value for the purpose of analysis. Our focus was to collect the maximum number of plant samples bearing flowers and fruits in different seasons. A number of the quantitative measures typically employed in biodiversity plot studies were calculated for the two types of studied forest plots—subtropical and temperate forests. These included stem density, frequency, basal area, relative density, relative dominance, relative frequency, and importance value index (IVI) [ 46 – 51 ]. Data on plot heterogeneity (diversity and evenness of species)—such as the Dominance, Shannon, and Evenness indices—were computed using PAST software Version 3.21 and presented. The specimens collected from the field tours were dried and processed as per the standard operating procedure of Jain and Rao’s modern herbarium techniques [ 52 ]. GPS coordinates, along with the digital photographs of all plant species available in the study, were taken. Plant samples were collected in triplicate and herbarium-prepared as per standard protocols, and the specimens of the collected plants were pasted on herbarium sheets (42 cm × 28 cm ± 2 cm). Each plant was given an accession number. Finally, the plant specimens were deposited in the Janaki Ammal Herbarium (acronym RRLH) of the CSIR–Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine Jammu (India). The herbarium acronyms are in accordance with Thiers [ 53 ]. 2.2.2. Presentation of Data The vegetation composition of the study area is identified based on morphological characteristics. The species, along with their habitat and habit, life-span, phenological period, Raunkiaer’s life-form system classification, leaf spectra, and the distribution of the flowering periods of the study area, were provided. Families were arranged according to

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Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 7 of 31 Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV classifications [ 54 ]. Gymnosperms, and lycophytes and ferns, were placed after the flowering plants. The total number of orders, families, genera, and species under dicots and monocots identified from the study area was also prepared. IUCN Red List statuses were provided by consulting their website: www.iucnredlist.org . 2.2.3. Literature Sources The identities of plants were confirmed from scientific studies published in journals, books, revisionary works, and monographs available in the libraries of CSIR–Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (IIIM) and Jammu University. Plant species were botanically compared with the help of Flora of Udhampur [ 55 ], Flora of Jammu and Plants of Neighbourhood [ 56 ], Flora of Trikuta Hills [ 57 ], Handbook of Medicinal Herbs [ 58 ], and Illustration of Jammu Plants [ 59 ]. Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV was used to classify the plant species, and the species list of the plants was checked using POWO (available at http://www.powo.org ), the International Plant Names Index (available at http://www.ipni.org ), and Tropicos (available at https://www.tropicos.org ). For each plant species, we attributed a life-form following Raunkiaer’s classification, and a leaf size, as categorical variables: (1) leptophyllous (<25 mm 2 ); (2) nanophyllous (25–225 mm 2 ); (3) microphyllous (225–2025 mm 2 ); (4) mesophyllous (2025–4500 mm 2 ); and (5) megaphyllous (4500–1225 mm 2 ). A biological spectrum was prepared for the study area, which was subsequently compared with Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum in order to determine the phytoclimate and vegetation composition of the study area For studying the phenological periods of different species, we categorized different months of the year as different seasons: summer (April–June); spring (January–March); rainy (July–September); and winter (October–December). Flowering periods were recorded from our field observations, and plant sample collection was performed over four continuous years of data collection from the study area 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Diversity of Taxa and Families In the present study, a total of 547 sampled vouchers were collected, representing 196 species of 166 genera distributed in 68 families under 27 orders (Table 1 ). Sixty-eight percent of the species were dicotyledons, followed by monocotyledons (23.97%), lycophytes and ferns (5.10%), and gymnosperms (2.55%). The dominant orders of the angiosperms were Poales with 38 taxa (19.38%), Rosales (25, 12.75%), Fabales (16, 8.16%), Sapindales (15, 7.65%), Lamiales (13, 6.63%), Asterales (9, 4.59%), Caryophyllales (8, 4.04%), Malpighiales (7, 3.57%), Ranunculales (6, 3.06%), and Cucurbitales (5, 2.55%) (Table 1 ). All of the angiosperm species are arranged according to the APG IV system of classification [ 54 ], followed by gymnosperms, and lycophytes and ferns Table 1. Total diversity of plant taxa in the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India Group Orders Families Genera Taxa Herbs Shrubs Trees Total Dicots 20 52 117 48 34 52 134 Monocots 5 10 37 46 1 0 47 Lycophytes and ferns 1 4 8 10 0 0 10 Gymnosperms 1 2 4 0 0 5 5 Total 27 68 166 104 35 57 196 The top 10 dominant families reported in the study area in terms of species richness were Poaceae (29, 14.79%), followed by Fabaceae (17, 8.67%), Rosaceae , Cyperaceae , and Asteraceae (9, 4.59% each). A total of 11 families comprising 2 species (1.02%), 4 families comprising 3 species (1.53%), and 4 families comprising 4 species (2.04%) were also reported Another 37 monotypic families comprising single species were also identified in the study area. In terms of the highest number of genera, the 10 most dominant plant families were

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Chawla, Wadhwa, Dhaliwal, Work, Sharma, Shaheen, Plum, Rosa, Dhar, Artemisia, Agrawal, Trin, Haq, Zent, Mill, Sierra]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 8 of 31 Poaceae (23, 13.93%), Fabaceae (17, 10.30%), Asteraceae (9, 5.45%), Acanthaceae (6, 3.63%), Cyperaceae , Lamiaceae , Rosaceae and Urticaceae (5, 3.03% each), Pteridaceae (4, 2.42%), and Polygonaceae (2, 1.21%) Floristic studies carried out by Dhar and Kachroo [ 60 ] in the Kashmir Himalayas have shown a somewhat similar pattern of diversity of plant taxa. According to their work, Asteraceae , Lamiaceae , Poaceae , Rosaceae , and Polygonaceae were dominant plant families, similar to our own research findings. Similarly, Sharma et al. [ 61 ] carried out similar studies in the Sangla Valley of the Northwestern Himalayan Region, and reported Asteraceae , Rosaceae , Apiaceae , and Ranunculaceae as the dominant families. Our findings were also supported by the dominance of Poaceae and Asteraceae reported in the flora of the Lahaul– Spiti and Bhaba Valleys of Western Himalaya and Himachal Pradesh [ 62 , 63 ]. Species richness was similar at the same altitude and climatic conditions. Zent and Zent [ 64 ] studied the floristic composition, structure, and diversity of forest plots in the Sierra Maigualida, Venezuelan Guayana, and reported 533 species, of which Fabaceae represents the most dominant family. There are other, similar studies that support our findings, including the studies carried out by Agrawal [ 65 ], Shaheen et al. [ 66 ], and Haq et al. [ 67 ]. The genus Cyperus L. comprises five species, and was the most dominant monocot, whereas the genera comprising three species were Ficus Tourn. ex L., Persicaria Mill., Rubus L., and Setaria P.Beauv. The 19 well-represented genera containing 2 species were Asplenium L., Carex L., Chrysopogon Trin., Clematis L., Commelina Plum. ex L., Cymbopogon Spreng., Euphorbia L., Galium L., Isodon (Schard. ex Benth.) Spach, Pilea Lindl., Pinus L., Prunus L., Pteris L., Pyrus L., Rumex L., Saccharum L., Solanum L., Thalictrum Tourn. ex L., and Terminalia L. The remaining 139 taxa, belonging to monotypic genera, were also recorded In a similar environment, a study on floristic diversity and the distribution patterns of plant communities along altitudinal gradients was carried out by Sharma et al. [ 61 ] in the Sangla Valley of the Northwestern Himalayan Region, and reported Artemisia L., Polygonum Juss., Saussurea DC., Berberis L., Thalictrum Tourn. ex L., Geranium Tourn. ex L., Juniperus L., Nepeta L., Potentilla L., Poa L., Rosa L., and Salix L. as the dominant genera. There are other similar studies which support our findings, including the studies carried out by Chawla et al. [ 62 ], Chowdhery and Wadhwa [ 63 ], Agrawal [ 65 ], Shaheen et al. [ 66 ], Dhaliwal and Sharma [ 68 ], and Haq et al. [ 69 ]. 3.2. Species Diversity in Different Growth Form The present floristic and vegetative composition analysis of the study area shows a total of 134 dicots (68.37%), 47 monocots (24.23%), 10 lycophytes and ferns (5.15%), and 5 gymnosperms (2.57%). Among these, 104 of the identified taxa were herbs (53.06%), followed by shrubs (17.85%) and trees (29.08%). Amongst the total dicot taxa, herbs, shrubs, and tree habits were represented by 48, 34, and 52 taxa, respectively, whereas the total monocot group of plants, herbs and shrubs, comprised of 46 and 1 species, respectively. No tree species of monocots were recorded in the study area. The epiphytes recorded were not included while studying the quadrat data for analysis of different diversity indices The results of 240 quadrats indicated that the subtropical forests of the Bani Valley were characterized by 415 trees, 480 shrubs, and 96,000 herbs, representing 45, 23, and 42 species of trees, shrubs, and herbs, respectively. The temperate forest plots indicated 400 trees (19 species), 355 shrubs (20 species), and 162,800 herbs (59 species) (Table 2 ). The Dominance, Shannon, and Evenness indices analyzed for these two types of forests (subtropical and temperate forests) of the Bani Valley are also presented in Table 2 .

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Saha, Klimes, Low, Nautiyal, Adhikari, Gaston, Rawat, Dogra, Subramani, Plateau, Mir, Nano, Common]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 9 of 31 Table 2. Qualitative analysis of plant diversity of the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India Habit Number of Taxa Number of Individuals Dominance Index Shannon Index Evenness Index A. Subtropical forests (1201–1600 m) Trees 45 415 0.41 3.51 0.74 Shrubs 23 480 0.08 2.75 0.68 Herbs 42 96,000 0.06 3.01 0.76 B. Temperate forests (1601–2000 m) Trees 19 400 0.11 2.53 0.66 Shrubs 20 355 0.12 2.31 0.76 Herbs 59 162,800 0.03 3.77 0.77 At low altitudes in the subtropical forests of the study area in the Bani Valley, angiosperm taxa were dominant. The gymnosperms were mostly confined to high-altitude regions of the study area. Monocots, especially Poaceae , were mostly confined to the higher elevations. Trees and shrubs were mostly confined to lower elevations. The earlier research carried out on the species diversity in Western Himalaya shows a somewhat similar pattern. Comparing these research findings with earlier works, such as that of Mir et al. [ 70 ] in the Kashmir Himalayas, shows similarity in findings mostly regarding the dominant coniferous forests. Similarly, Dogra et al. [ 71 ] studied plant diversity in the western Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh in similar climatic conditions and elevations, and our research shows similarities in terms of family composition and dominant species. Gaston et al. [ 72 ] also carried out similar studies in the western Himalayas, which showed a similar type of species diversity in similar types of vegetation. Other researchers, such as Gairola et al. [ 73 ], have performed floristic analysis in the western Himalayas of the Garhwal division of Uttarakhand, and the species richness and different growth forms were similar to the present findings 3.3. Life Span In the study area, 50 taxa of annual plants, representing 25.51%, were therophytes Some of the common annual plants growing in the study area were Juncus bufonius L., Poa annua L., Solanum virginianum L., Cyperus rotundus L., Euphorbia thymifolia L., etc. A total of 146 were perennial plants, comprising 74.49% of the total flora of the study area, which could survive in the most unusual and unfavorable conditions. These perennial plants were mostly trees and shrubs, which were more dominant at low altitudes in warm, moist, subtropical forests. Some of the common perennial plants growing in the study area were Commelina benghalensis L., Rubus paniculatus Sm., Clematis graveolens Lindl., Carex brunnea Thunb., A. nitida , C. deodara , etc. At higher altitudes most of the plant life forms were therophytes, hemicryptophytes, and chamaephytes, and this could be the result of climatic factors and dry conditions favoring the growth of such species. Similar conditions are not inclusive for other groups, such as megaphanerophytes and nanophanerophytes The data on life-span findings from the Bani Valley were observed to be similar to those of Subramani et al. [ 74 ], who have carried out life-span studies in the Northwestern Himalayan Region. Another botanist, Saha [ 75 ] came across similar dominant life-forms in the Darjeeling regions of the northeastern Himalayas. In J&K, Rawat and Adhikari [ 76 ] studied the Changthang plateau of the Ladakh region based on altitudinal gradients, and recorded similar observations. Other studies, such as those of Namgyal et al. [ 77 ], Klimes [ 78 ], and Pharswan et al. [ 79 ], also attained similar research findings in Western Himalaya. Nautiyal et al. [ 80 ] conducted similar studies at similar altitudes and climatic conditions in the Tungnath area of the Kumaon Himalayas 3.4. Life Form and Biological Spectrum The biological spectrum of the Bani Valley shows that phanerophytes, with 96 taxa (48.97%), were the dominant group, followed by therophytes (50, 25.51%), hemicryptophytes (30, 15.31%), chamaephytes (16, 8.16%), and geophytes (4, 2.04%) (Figure 3 ). Among phanerophytes, megaphanerophytes (61, 31.12%) were more dominant than nano-

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Cha, Geo]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 10 of 31 phanerophytes (35, 17.86%). This research reveals that phanerophytes, chamaephytes, and therophytes constituted higher percentages of 48.97, 8.16, and 25.51%, respectively, than in Raunkiear’s normal spectra, exhibiting a “phanero-phamaetherophytic phytoclimate” (Figure 4 ). Furthermore, the plant life forms, i.e., hemicryptophytes (15.31%) and geophytes (2.04%), were comparatively smaller in percentage than in Raunkiaer’s normal spectra (Table 3 ). The dominant three groups (phanerophytes, therophytes, and hemicryptophytes) constituted 89.79% of the total plant’s life Sustainability 2021 , 13 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 32 hemicryptophytes (30, 15.31%), chamaephytes (16, 8.16%), and geophytes (4, 2.04%) (Figure 3). Among phanerophytes, megaphanerophytes (61, 31.12%) were more dominant than nanophanerophytes (35, 17.86%). This research reveals that phanerophytes, chamaephytes, and therophytes constituted higher percentages of 48.97, 8.16, and 25.51%, respectively, than in Raunkiear’s normal spectra, exhibiting a “phanero-phamaetherophytic phytoclimate” (Figure 4). Furthermore, the plant life forms, i.e., hemicryptophytes (15.31%) and geophytes (2.04%), were comparatively smaller in percentage than in Raunkiaer’s normal spectra (Table 3). The dominant three groups (phanerophytes, therophytes, and hemicryptophytes) constituted 89.79% of the total plant’s life. Figure 3. Biological spectra of the taxa recorded in the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India, based on Raunkiaer’s system of classification. Figure 4. Comparison of the biological spectra of the taxa recorded in the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India, with Raunkiaer’s Normal Spectra (PH: Phanerophytes; CHA: Chamaephytes; GEO: Geophytes; HCP: Hemicryptophytes; THP: Therophytes). Figure 3. Biological spectra of the taxa recorded in the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India, based on Raunkiaer’s system of classification Sustainability 2021 , 13 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 32 hemicryptophytes (30, 15.31%), chamaephytes (16, 8.16%), and geophytes (4, 2.04%) (Figure 3). Among phanerophytes, megaphanerophytes (61, 31.12%) were more dominant than nanophanerophytes (35, 17.86%). This research reveals that phanerophytes, chamaephytes, and therophytes constituted higher percentages of 48.97, 8.16, and 25.51%, respectively, than in Raunkiear’s normal spectra, exhibiting a “phanero-phamaetherophytic phytoclimate” (Figure 4). Furthermore, the plant life forms, i.e., hemicryptophytes (15.31%) and geophytes (2.04%), were comparatively smaller in percentage than in Raunkiaer’s normal spectra (Table 3). The dominant three groups (phanerophytes, therophytes, and hemicryptophytes) constituted 89.79% of the total plant’s life. Figure 3. Biological spectra of the taxa recorded in the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India, based on Raunkiaer’s system of classification. Figure 4. Comparison of the biological spectra of the taxa recorded in the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India, with Raunkiaer’s Normal Spectra (PH: Phanerophytes; CHA: Chamaephytes; GEO: Geophytes; HCP: Hemicryptophytes; THP: Therophytes). Figure 4. Comparison of the biological spectra of the taxa recorded in the Bani Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalaya, India, with Raunkiaer’s Normal Spectra (PH: Phanerophytes; CHA: Chamaephytes; GEO: Geophytes; HCP: Hemicryptophytes; THP: Therophytes).

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Keran, Mild, Hot, Feel, Wright, Sunny, Saxena, Cold, Bedi]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 11 of 31 Table 3. Biological spectra (% of all life forms) of the study area and its comparison with Raunkiaer’s normal spectra Raunkiaer ‘s Life Forms Total No. of Species Biological Spectra (%) of the Bani Valley Raunkiaer’sNormal Spectra (%) Deviation = (Raunkiaer’s Normal Spectra–Biological Spectra) PH 96 48.98 46.00 2.98 CHA 16 8.16 9.00 − 0.84 GEO 4 2.04 6.00 − 3.96 HCP 30 15.31 26.00 − 10.69 THP 50 25.51 13.00 12.51 Total 196 100.00 100.00 0.00 (Note:PH: Phanerophytes; CHA: Chamaephytes; GEO: Geophytes; HCP: Hemicryptophytes; THP: Therophytes) Therophytes growing in the Bani Valley showed the maximum divergence from Raunkiaer’s normal spectra. The dominance of phanerophytes indicates that the study area was under mild biotic pressure. Many plant species were decreasing in the area at an alarming rate [ 81 , 82 ]. Therefore, we feel that it is the responsibility of the local people and forest departments to protect the plant species and unique vegetation composition of the Bani Valley Studies reveal that megaphanerophytes and nanophanerophytes were dominant in warmer, moist subtropical forests, whereas therophytes and hemicryptophytes are mostly present in the high-altitude regions of the Bani Valley. Similar studies were also carried out in Western Himalaya earlier by many botanists. Saxena et al. [ 83 ] performed studies on life forms at high altitudes in the Kumaon Himalayas. The results of our study were similar to their research findings. Other botanists, such as Singh and Bedi [ 84 ], and Das et al. [ 85 ], have also carried out similar research in different pockets of Western Himalaya, and when comparing the present research with earlier research findings, we find similar results 3.5. Leaf Size Spectrum The overall leaf size spectra of the Bani Valley were: 10 leptophyllous (5.10%), 63 nanophyllous (32.14%), 41 microphyllous (20.92%), 68 mesophyllous (34.69%), and 14 megaphyllous (7.14%). Among the leaf size spectra, mesophyllous was found to be highest among plant species, followed by nanophyllous, microphyllous, megaphyllous, and leptophyllous. The results analysis of the leaf spectra of the Bani Valley concerning the Raunkiaer’s life forms system is shown in Table 4 . We observed that the taxa with large leaves occur in warmer, moist climatic conditions, while the plants with smaller leaves are characteristic of cold and dry climatic conditions. Wright et al. [ 86 ] studied leaf data for 7670 plant species, along with climate data from 682 sites across the world, and concluded that large-leaved species predominate in wet, hot, and sunny environments, whereas small-leaved plant species were found in high-altitude areas [ 63 ]. In the present study, the plant species with microphyllous and nanophyllous leaves were confined to higher altitude regions, and this findingis consistent with the work carried out by Haq et al. [ 67 ]. The plant species with mesophyllous and megaphyllous leaves represent the characteristic vegetation in the low-altitude regions. A study carried out in the Keran Valley of the Kashmir Himalayas generated similar results [ 67 ]. The herbaceous flora were dominant at the upper reaches in both studies. This is because of similar altitudes and climatic conditions. Similarly, studies carried out by Shaheen et al. [ 87 ] in the Western Himalayan alpine regions of Kashmir show similar patterns of life forms.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Stage, Zone, Bloom, Falls, Grow]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 12 of 31 Table 4. Analysis by leaf size of life forms in the study area Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leptophyllous Megaphyllous Mesophyllous Microphyllous Nanophyllous Total CHA 0 0 6 3 7 16 GEO 0 1 2 0 1 4 HCP 1 0 10 7 12 30 PH 5 12 37 20 22 96 THP 4 1 13 11 21 50 Total 10 14 68 41 63 196 (Note: PH: Phanerophytes; CHA: Chamaephytes’ GEO: Geophytes; HCP: Hemicryptophytes; THP: Therophytes) 3.6. Phenological Periods The taxa showed flowering and fruiting in different seasons. The phenological periods of the plants of the Bani Valley were divided into four different groups of the year. From January to March, 17 taxa were recorded as being in the flowering stage (8.67%), followed by 106 taxa flowering in April–June (54.08%), 63 taxa from July to September (32.14%), and 10 (5.10%) from October to December (Figure 5 ). Most taxa from the study area were found to be in the flowering stage from April to June. The majority of the taxa bloomed from May to June. The Bani Valley falls under the temperate zone of the Northwestern Himalayan Region, and experiences vivid snowfall in most parts of the region. The perennating buds of the plants growing in such a climate remain dormant in order to overcome these adverse climatic conditions. This is the reason that leads to plants blooming in the spring and summer seasons. Even from July to September, many plant species were found to be in the flowering stage, and during this period the region experiences maximum rainfall. High rainfall allows the plants to grow and bloom. The findings of the present study correlate with similar studies undertaken by earlier researchers [ 88 – 93 ], which reached similar research findings Sustainability 2021 , 13 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 32 Table 4. Analysis by leaf size of life forms in the study area Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leptophyllous Megaphyllous Mesophyllous Microphyllous Nanophyllous Total CHA 0 0 6 3 7 16 GEO 0 1 2 0 1 4 HCP 1 0 10 7 12 30 PH 5 12 37 20 22 96 THP 4 1 13 11 21 50 Total 10 14 68 41 63 196 (Note: PH: Phanerophytes; CHA: Chamaephytes’ GEO: Geophytes; HCP: Hemicryptophytes; THP: Therophytes). 3.6. Phenological Periods The taxa showed flowering and fruiting in different seasons. The phenological periods of the plants of the Bani Valley were divided into four different groups of the year. From January to March, 17 taxa were recorded as being in the flowering stage (8.67%), followed by 106 taxa flowering in April–June (54.08%), 63 taxa from July to September (32.14%), and 10 (5.10%) from October to December (Figure 5). Most taxa from the study area were found to be in the flowering stage from April to June. The majority of the taxa bloomed from May to June. The Bani Valley falls under the temperate zone of the Northwestern Himalayan Region, and experiences vivid snowfall in most parts of the region. The perennating buds of the plants growing in such a climate remain dormant in order to overcome these adverse climatic conditions. This is the reason that leads to plants blooming in the spring and summer seasons. Even from July to September, many plant species were found to be in the flowering stage, and during this period the region experiences maximum rainfall. High rainfall allows the plants to grow and bloom. The findings of the present study correlate with similar studies undertaken by earlier researchers [88–93], which reached similar research findings. Figure 5. Analysis of the total number of taxa in different phenological periods of the year. Figure 5. Analysis of the total number of taxa in different phenological periods of the year.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: New, Cav, Europe, Randall, China, Veldkamp, Corr, Kohli, Paul, Fisch]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 13 of 31 3.7. Invasive Species Out of a total of 196 species inventorized from the Bani Valley, 30% (59 species) are alien/invasive species, while 70% are native to the Asian or Himalayan regions. These invasive species also show affinities of European, Eurasian, African, and American origin. Most of these alien species are cultivated or introduced as garden plants by the local people in the study area. The most common invasive plant species found to be growing in the region include species such as Ageratum conyzoides L., Argemone mexicana L., Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst., C. brunnea , Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Euphorbia thymifolia L., Galinsoga parviflora Cav., J. bufonius , Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke, Panicum virgatum L., Parthenium hysterophorus L., Prunus domestica L., R. idaeus , Setaria flavida (Retz.) Veldkamp, Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv., and Solanum americanum Mill. (Table 5 ). These invasive plants also are reported as potential invaders in other parts of the Himalayas [ 69 ]. Alien plant species tend to have more phenotypic plasticity than native plants, and are usually superior to native plants in numerous fitness components; for this reason, they can colonize disturbed areas and natural habitats more resourcefully than native species [ 94 – 96 ]. Asteraceae , Poaceae , Brassicaceae , Fabaceae , and Lamiaceae are the families with the most invasive plant species found in India [ 97 ], and these families of invasive species are consistent with the findings of Wu et al. [ 98 ] for China, Lambdon et al. [ 99 ] for Europe, Khuroo et al. [ 100 ] for India, Randall [ 101 ] for Australia, and Diez et al. [ 102 ] for New Zealand. Out of all of the species recorded inthe Bani Valley, 30.41% are alien, most of which thrive in anthropogenically disturbed habitats. These values are comparable with those reported by Kohli et al. [ 103 ] from the Himachal Pradesh region of the Indian Himalayas. Khuroo et al. [ 104 ] reported that 8.5% of Indian flora (1599 species belonging to 842 genera and 161 families) were alien plant species, most of which belonged to the Asteraceae (134 spp.), Papilionaceae (114 spp.) and Poaceae (106 spp.) families. Another study carried out by Haq et al. [ 69 ] reported Anthemis cotula L., Convolvulus arvensis L., Carduus onopordioides Fisch. ex M.Bieb., Datura stramonium L., Erigeron canadensis L., and Sisymbrium loeselii L. as the most invasive plant species growing in the Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas, and reported that climate change and biological invasions in the form of alien species are major drivers affecting biodiversity and ecosystem services 3.8. Conservation Status and IUCN Categories Among these 196 taxa of plants (Table 5 ), 113 had not been evaluated according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [ 105 ]. There were 76 plant taxa mentioned under least concern (LC), 1 as endangered (EN), 2 as near-threatened (NT), 2 as vulnerable (VU), and 2 as data deficient (DD) Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle was the endangered species identified from the study area, whereas Ulmus wallichiana Planch. and Plantago lanceolata L. were the vulnerable species Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr ê a and Q. oblongata —categorized as NT—were also found to be growing in the Bani Valley Taxus baccata L. and 75 other species are LC species recorded in the study area. Earlier works, such as that of Bijlwan et al. [ 106 ], studied the natural regeneration status of endangered plants i.e., T. baccata in the Northwestern Himalayan Region. Similarly, Lanker et al. [ 107 ] and Paul et al. [ 108 ] studied the genus Taxus L. in the northeast Himalayas, where this species was mentioned as a highly threatened plant due to anthropogenic factors and its use in medicine. The phytosociological analysis with ecological information reveals a study area that is floristically rich and, at the same time, under pressure from human activity. This research highlights the status and ecological distribution of the species in the study area, the ecological characteristics necessary for their survival, and the threats faced by some of the taxa designated by following the criteria devised by the IUCN. Various factors caused the depletion of the native flora from the study area. Anthropogenic activities were the major cause. Deforestation and overgrazing by livestock were other factors leading to the destruction of plant species.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: America, Schott, Kern, Mes, Nov, Jun, Mic, Dec, Sep, Jul, Lep, Vent, Africa, Hill, Aug, Afghanistan]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 14 of 31 Table 5. List of plant taxa in the Bani Valley of Kathua district, Jammu and Kashmir, Western Himalaya, India Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) I. MONOCOTS Acorales Martinov Acoraceae Martinov Acorus calamus L RRLH 54665 H P May–June Streamside GEO MES Ensiform LC Native to Asia N Alismatales R.Br. ex Bercht & J. Presl Potamogetonaceae Bercht & J.Presl Potamogeton nodosus Poir RRLH 55286 H P Jul–Aug Aquatic CHA NP Lanceolate LC Native to North America E Araceae Juss Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott RRLH 55268 H P July–Aug Forest slopes GEO MES Oblong to lanceolate NA Native to Asia N Juncaceae Juss Juncus bufonius L RRLH 55278 H A May–Jun Streamside THP MES Elliptic LC Native to North America E Smilacaceae Vent Smilax vaginata Decne RRLH 54673 S P May–Aug Forest thickets PH NPH LEP Ovate NA Native to Asia and Afghanistan N Asparagales Asparagaceae Juss Asparagus adscendens Roxb RRLH 55270 H P Nov–Dec Forest thickets PH NPH MIC Spiny NA Native to India N Orchidaceae Juss Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume RRLH 55205 H A May–Jun Epiphytic THP LEP Lorate NA Native to Asia N Commelinales Mirb. ex Bercht. & J. Presl Commelinaceae Mirb Commelina benghalensis L RRLH 54667 H P Apr–May Wet places CHA MES Ovate LC Native to Asia N Commelina communis L RRLH 54941 H A Apr–May Moist places THP MES Lanceolate NA Native to Asia N Poales Small Cyperaceae Juss Cyperus alulatus J. Kern RRLH 54630 H A Jun–Jul Forest slopes THP NP Elliptic LC Native to the Indian subcontinent N Carex brunnea Thunb RRLH 55270 H P Jun–Jul Mountain slopes HCP NP Lanceolate NA Native to Africa E Carex muricata L RRLH 55271 H P May–Jun Hill slopes HCP MIC Lanceolate NA Native to North America E Cyperus niveus Retz RRLH 54667 H A Sep–Oct Stream margins THP MIC Elliptic NA Native to Asia N

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Rocky, Ramosa, Cont, Schult, Mar, Rock, Watson, Barnhart, Jan, Camus]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 15 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Cyperus paniceus (Rottb.) Boeckeler RRLH 55274 H P Apr–May Grasslands HCP NP Oblong LC Native to Africa E Cyperus rotundus L RRLH 52669 H A May–Jun Grasslands THP MIC Elliptic LC Native to Africa and Eurasia E Eleocharis palustris (L.) Roem & Schult RRLH 55276 H P Jun–Jul Stream margins HCP MIC Linear LC Native to North America E Eriophorum comosum (Wall.) Nees RRLH 54904 H P May–Jun Rock crevices THP NP Linear LC Native to Asia N Schoenoplectus lacustris (L.) Roem. & Schult RRLH 55288 H P Jun–Jul Swampy areas HCP NP Linear LC Native to Europe E Poaceae Barnhart Alopecurus arundinaceus Poir RRLH 54668 H P Jul–Aug Grasslands CHA NP Linear LC Native to Eurasia E Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst RRLH 52617 H A Sep–Oct Rocky surfaces THP NP Elliptic LC Native to Eurasia E Arundinella pumila (Hochst.) Steud RRLH 55269 H P Aug–Sep Grasslands HCP MES Linear to lanceolate NA Native to Asia N Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf RRLH 52615 H A May–Jun Grasslands THP MIC Lanceolate LC Native to tropical Africa E Cenchrus ciliaris L RRLH 54626 H A May–Jun Wastelands HCP MES Linear LC Native to tropical Africa E Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Choiv RRLH 54960 H A Jun–Jul Moist places THP MES Linear NA Native to Asia N Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin RRLH 55273 H P Aug–Sep Moist places HCP NP Linear NA Native to Eurasia E Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) W.Watson RRLH 54669 H P Jun–Jul Open, grassy places HCP MES Linear to filiform NA Native to India and China N Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult RRLH 54670 H P Mar–May Mountain slopes HCP MIC Linear NA Native of Africa E Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers RRLH 54671 H P Jan–Dec Roadsides HCP NP Linear NA Native to Africa E Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P.Beauv RRLH 55275 H P May–Jun Moist places HCP NP Linear LC Native to Africa E Isachne himalaica Hook.f RRLH 54971 H P May–Jun Swampy places HCP NP Linear NA Native to the Himalayas N Leersia hexandra Sw RRLH 55279 H P May–June Streamside HCP NP Linear LC Native to America E Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv RRLH 54627 H P Jul–Aug Field margins HCP MES Linear NA Native to Africa E Microstegium nudum (Trin.) A.Camus RRLH 55280 H A Aug–Sep Field margins THP NP Linear NA Native to Africa E

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Hack, Honda, Montane, Thomson]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 16 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack RRLH 55281 H P Aug–Sep Mountain slopes HCP MES Linear NA Native to the Himalayas N Oplismenus burmanii (Retz.) P.Beauv RRLH 55282 H P Sep–Oct Moist places HCP NP Lanceolate NA Native to Africa E Panicum virgatum L RRLH 54628 H P Jul–Aug Cultivated THP NP Linear LC Native to North America E Paspalum vaginatum Sw RRLH 54986 H P Jun–Jul Swampy areas HCP MIC Linear LC Native to North America E Pennisetum flaccidum Griseb RRLH 55283 H P Jul–Aug Grasslands HCP MIC Linear LC Native to the Himalayas N Poa annua L RRLH 55284 H A Apr–May Moist places THP MES Linear LC Native to America E Polypogon fugax Nees ex Steud RRLH 55285 H A Jun–Aug Moist places THP NP Linear NA Native to South America E Saccharum filifolium Steud RRLH 55287 H P Apr–May Grasslands HCP MIC Linear NA Native to the Himalayas N Saccharum spontaneum L RRLH 54953 H P Jul–Aug Mountain slopes HCP NP Linear LC Native to the Indian subcontinent N Setaria flavida (Retz.) Veldkamp RRLH 55290 H P Jul–Aug Roadsides HCP MES Linear to lanceolate NA Native to Africa E Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv RRLH 55291 H A May–Jul Cultivated THP NP Linear NA Native to Eurasia E Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv RRLH 55292 H A May–Jun Roadsides THP LEP Linear NA Native to Asia N Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem) Honda RRLH 54952 H P May–Dec Hillsides HCP NP Lanceolate NA Native to Asia N Tragus racemosus (L.) All RRLH 55294 H P May–Jun Roadsides THP NP Linear NA Native to Eurasia and Africa E II. EUDICOTS Ranunculales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl Ranunculaceae Juss Clematis grata Wall RRLH 55388 S P Jul–Aug Forest margins PH NPH NP Ovate NA Native to the Himalayas N Clematis graveolens Lindl RRLH 55336 S P Apr–May Forest thickets PH NPH NP Ovate NA Native to Afghanistan and India N Thalictrum foliolosum DC RRLH 55367 S P May–Jun Montane forests PH NPH MIC Elliptic to ovate NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Thalictrum virgatum Hook.f & Thomson RRLH 55245 S P Jun–Jul Forest margins PH NPH MIC Rhombic NA Native to the Himalayas N Berberidaceae Juss.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Hil, Forst, Iii, Acacia, Gamble, Feb, Arn, Jansson, Core]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 17 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Berberis lycium Royle RRLH 55359 S P Apr–May Forest margins PH NPH NP Oblanceolate NA Native to the Himalayas N Platanaceae T.Lestib Platanus orientalis L RRLH 55215 T P Mar–May Cultivated PH MPH NP Ovate DD Native to Europe E Buxales Takht. ex Reveal Buxaceae Dumort Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Müll.Arg RRLH 55268 S P May–Jun Evergreen forests PH NPH MES Lanceolate NA Native to India and Pakistan N Papaveraceae Juss Argemone mexicana L RRLH 54671 H A Mar–Apr Streamside THP MIC Oblanceolate NA Native to North America E Menispermaceae Juss Cissampelos pareira L RRLH 54662 S P Mar–Apr Forest margins PH NPH NP Ovate NA Native to Asia N Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson RRLH 54670 S P May–Jun Forest thickets PH NPH MES Cordate NA Native to Asia N Piperales Bercht. & J.Presl Piperaceae Giseke Peperomia tetraphylla (G.Forst.) Hook. & Arn RRLH 55254 H P Feb–Mar Epiphytes GEO NP Elliptic NA Native to Asia N Laurales Juss. Lauraceae Juss Neolitsea umbrosa (Nees) Gamble RRLH 54992 T P Mar–May Forest margins PH MPH MES Oblong NA Native to the Himalayas N III. CORE EUDICOTS SUPERROSIDS Saxifragales Bercht. & J. Presl Crassulaceae J.St.–Hil Rosularia adenotricha (Wall. ex Edgew.) C.-A.Jansson RRLH 54904 H A May–Jun Rock crevices THP MIC Obovate NA Native to the Himalayas N Fabales Bromhead Fabaceae Lindl Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC RRLH 54925 S P April–Jun Forest thickets PH NPH MIC Ovate NA Native to Asia N Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr RRLH 54675 T P Mar–May Open areas PH MPH MIC Oblong NA Native to Southeast Asia N

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Hurter, Deg, Meg, Greene, Roth, West, Raf, Modesta, Cassia, Lour, Regia]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 18 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Argyrolobium roseum (Cambess.) Jaub. & Spach RRLH 55372 H A May–Jun Forest margins THP MIC Obovate NA Native to India and Pakistan N Bauhinia purpurea L RRLH 55373 T P May–Jun Cultivated PH MPH MIC Suborbicular LC Native to the Indian subcontinent N Biancaea decapetela (Roth.) O.Deg RRLH 55374 S P Apr–May Roadsides PH NPH MIC Ovate NA Native to Asia N Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze RRLH 54676 T P Mar–Apr Forest margins PH MPH NP Obovate LC Native to Asia N Cassia fistula L RRLH 55375 T P Aug–Sep Roadsides PH MGP MES Ovate LC Native to the Indian subcontinent N Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene RRLH 55611 S P Apr–May Wastelands PH NPH MEG Linear LC Native to Africa E Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC RRLH 54931 T P Mar–Apr Cultivated PH MPH MEG Ovate LC Native to India N Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf RRLH 55375 T P Jun–Jul Cultivated PH MPH NP Oblong LC Native to Madagascar E Erythrina indica Lam RRLH 55376 T P Apr–May Field margins PH MPH MES Lanceolate LC Native to Africa and Asia N Grona triflora (L.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi RRLH 54905 S P May–Jun Forest thickets PH NPH MIC Obovate NA Native to America E Lespedeza juncea (L.f.) Pers RRLH 54636 H P Jul–Aug Forest thickets HCP NP Oblanceolate LC Native to Asia N Ototropis multiflora (DC.) H Ohashi & K. Ohashi RRLH 55363 S P Jul–Aug Mountain slopes PH NPH MIC Elliptic NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Phyllodium elegans (Lour.) Desv RRLH 54987 S P May–Jun Forest thickets PH NPH NP Ovate LC Native to the Himalayas N Robinia pseudoacacia L RRLH 54602 T P May–Jun Cultivated PH MPH MES Oblong LC Native to North America E Senegalia modesta (Wall.) P.J.H.Hurter RRLH 54674 T P Mar–May Cultivated PH MPH MES Ovate NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Rosales Bercht. & J.Presl Cannabaceae Martinov Cannabis sativa L RRLH 54915 H A May–Jun Wastelands THP NP Lanceolate NA Native to Asia N Celtis australis L RRLH 55360 T P Mar–May Field margins PH MPH NP Ovate LC Native to the Mediterranean region and West Asia E Elaeagnaceae Juss Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb RRLH 55354 T P Apr–May Forest thickets PH MPH MIC Obovate LC Native to Asia N Rosaceae Juss.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Nakai, Iran, Shady, Alba]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 19 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Prinsepia utilis Royle RRLH 55224 S P Apr–May Wastelands PH NPH MIC Ovate to lanceolate NA Native to the Western Himalayas N Prunus domestica L RRLH 55390 T P May–Jun Cultivated PH MPH NP Elliptic DD Native to North America E Prunus persica (L.) Batsch RRLH 55391 T P Apr–May Cultivated PH MPH MIC Elliptic LC Native to Asia N Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don RRLH 54901 T P Mar–May Forest thickets PH MPH MES Ovate LC Native to the Himalayas N Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm.f.) Nakai RRLH 55392 T P May–Jun Field margins PH MPH MES Ovate toelliptic NA Native to Southeast Asia N Rosa moschata Herrm RRLH 55393 S P Jun–Jul Forest thickets PH NPH MES Oblong to lanceolate NA Native to Iran and Afghanistan E Rubus ellipticus Sm RRLH 54951 S P Mar–Apr Mountain slopes PH NPH MES Ovate LC Native to Asia N Rubus idaeus L RRLH 55210 S P May–Jun Forest thickets PH NPH NP Ovate to lanceolate NA Native to Eurasia E Rubus paniculatus Sm RRLH 55292 S P Jun–Jul Forest thickets PH NPH NP Ovate to lanceolate NA Native to the Himalayas N Rhamnaceae Juss Ziziphus mauritiana Lam RRLH 55389 T P Aug–Sep Forest thickets PH MPH MES Ovate LC Native to India N Ulmaceae Mirb Trema orientalis (L.) Blume RRLH 55370 T P Mar–Apr Mountain slopes PH MPH NP Lanceolate to ovate LC Native to Asia and Africa N Ulmus wallichiana Planch RRLH 55400 T P Apr–May Field margins PH MPH MES Ovate VU Native to the Himalayas N Moraceae Gaudich Ficus auriculata Lour RRLH 55383 T P Aug–Sep Forest margins PH MPH MES Ovate to cordate LC Native to Asia N Ficus hispida L.f RRLH 55383 T P Jun–Jul Forest margins PH MPH MES Ovate to oblong LC Native to Asia N Ficus palmata Forssk RRLH 55224 T P May–Jun Roadsides PH MPH MES Ovate NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Morus alba L RRLH 55385 T P Apr–May Cultivated PH MPH MES Ovate LC Native to North America E Urticaceae Juss Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Hepper & J.R.I.Wood RRLH 54948 S P Mar–Apr Shady places PH MES Lanceolate NA Native to the Himalayas N Elatostema sessile J.R.Forst & G.Forst RRLH 54662 H P May–Jun Forest margins CHA NP Linear NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Engl, Gray, Kurz, Gandhi, Wilson]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 20 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Fleurya interrupta (L.) Gaudich RRLH 54663 H A Jul–Aug Moist places THP MES Ovate NA Native to Asia and Australia N Pilea scripta (Buch.- Ham. ex D.Don) Wedd RRLH 54664 H P Jun–Jul Shady places PH MIC Elliptic NA Native to the Himalayas N Pilea umbrosa Wedd. ex Blume RRLH 55664 H P Jul–Aug Shady places CHA MES Ovate NA Native to the Himalayas N Urtica dioica L RRLH 54991 H P Jun–Jul Forest thickets HCP MES Ovate LC Native to Eurasia E Fagales Engl. Fagaceae Dumort Castanea sativa Mill RRLH 55272 T P Apr–May Forest margins PH MPH MES Elliptic LC Native to Europe E Lithocarpus henryi (Seemen) Rehder & E.H.Wilson RRLH 55377 T P Aug–Sep Mixed forests PH MPH MES Oblong LC Native to the Himalayas N Quercus oblongata D.Don RRLH 54684 T P May–Jun Mixed forests PH MPH MES Oblong NT Native to Asia N Betulaceae Gray Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl RRLH 55302 T P Mar–Apr Forest margins PH MPH MIC Elliptic LC Native to the Himalayas N Juglandaceae DC. ex Perleb Juglans regia L RRLH 54857 T P Apr–May Cultivated PH MPH MES Elliptic LC Native to Eurasia E Cucurbitales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl Cucurbitaceae Juss Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi RRLH 54604 S P Apr–May Forest thickets PH NPH MIC Ovate NA Native to Asia N Combretaceae R.Br Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb RRLH 55361 T P Mar–Apr Field margins PH MPH MEG Obovate NA Native to Asia N Terminalia chebula Retz RRLH 54361 T P May–Jun Forest margins PH MPH MEG Elliptic LC Native to Asia N Lythraceae J.St.-Hil Punica granatum L RRLH 55379 S P May–Jun Cultivated PH NPH MEG Elliptic to oblanceolate LC Native to Iran and India N Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz RRLH 54914 T P Jan–Feb Forest slopes PH MPH NP Lanceolate LC Native to Asia N Malpighales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl Hypericaceae Juss.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Sri Lanka, Sri, Lanka, Clos]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 21 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Hypericum perforatum L RRLH 54665 H P Jun–Jul Grassland slopes PH NP Oblong NA Native to Eurasia E Violaceae Batsch Viola odorata L RRLH 55218 H P Apr–May Forest Slopes THP NP Ovate NA Native to Asia N Euphorbiaceae Juss Euphorbia hirsuta L RRLH 54944 H A Jun–Jul Roadsides HCP MIC Lanceolate to ovate NA Native to India N Euphorbia thymifolia L RRLH 54920 H A Jun–Jul Roadsides THP NP Lanceolate NA Native to America E Phyllanthus emblica L RRLH 52672 T P Apr–May Open areas PH MPH NP Oblong LC Native to India N Triadica sebifera (L.) Small RRLH 55371 T P May–Jun Forest slopes PH MPH NP Rhomboid to ovate LC Native to China and Taiwan E Salicaceae Mirb Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr RRLH 55395 S P Jan–Feb Mixed forests PH NPH MEG Oblong LC Native to Africa and Asia N Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle RRLH 55396 T P May–Jun Roadsides PH MPH MES Ovate LC Native to the Himalayas N Xylosma longifolia Clos RRLH 55397 T P Apr–May Mountain forests PH MPH MES Elliptic LC Native to the Indian subcontinent N Sapindales Juss. Sapindaceae Juss Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook RRLH 55368 T P Apr–May Field margins PH MPH MEG Oblong LC Native to the Himalayas N Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis RRLH 42643 T P May–Jun Forest margins PH MPH MEG Obovate LC Native to the Himalayas N Rutaceae Juss Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng RRLH 52649 S P Mar–Apr Mixed forests PH NPH MES Ovate NA Native to India and Sri Lanka N Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr ê a RRLH 52641 T P Jul–Aug Mixed forests PH MPH MES Ovate NT Native to the Indian subcontinent N Zanthoxylum armatum DC RRLH 55226 T P Apr–May Forest margins PH MPH MIC Lanceolate LC Native to the Himalayas N Anacardiaceae R.Br Cotinus coggygria Scop RRLH 54912 T P Feb–mar Forest thickets PH MPH MIC Elliptic LC Native to Eurasia E Simaroubaceae DC Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle RRLH 55398 T P Apr–May Mixed forests PH MPH MEG Ovate EN Native to Asia N Meliaceae Juss Melia azedarach L RRLH 55382 T P Mar–Apr Field margins PH MPH MIC Ovate LC Native to Asia N

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Drumm, Daphne]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 22 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Toona sinensis (Juss.) M.Roem RRLH 55381 T P May–Jun Forest margins PH MPH MES Lanceolate LC Native to the Indian subcontinent N Malvaceae Juss Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet RRLH 54666 H P July–Oct Wastelands CHA MIC Ovate NA Native to Asia N Bombax ceiba L RRLH 55364 T P Mar–Apr Field margins PH MPH MES Oblong LC Native to Asia N Grewia optiva J.R.Drumm ex Burret RRLH 55380 T P Jun–Jul Field margins PH MPH MES Elliptic NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke RRLH 54667 H P May–Jun Wastelands GEO MEG Ovate NA Native to North America E Thymelaeaceae Juss Daphne papyracea Wall ex G.Don RRLH 55215 S P Nov–Dec Forest thickets PH NPH MES Ovate NA Native to Asia N Brassicales Bromhead Capparaceae Juss Crateva adansonii DC RRLH 54671 T P Jun–Jul Roadsides PH MPH NP Elliptic LC Native to Asia N Caryophyllales Juss. ex Bercht. & J. Presl Amaranthaceae Juss Achyranthes aspera L RRLH 52653 H P Jun–Aug Wastelands CHA NP Obovate NA Native to South America E Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume RRLH 52658 H P April–Jun Forest margin CHA NP Ovate toelliptic NA Native to Asia N Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants RRLH 54988 H A Mar–Apr Field margins THP MIC Oblong NA Native to South America E Polygonaceae Juss Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham ex D.Don) H.Gross RRLH 54910 H P May–Jun Forest slopes CHA NP Ovate NA Native to Asia N Persicaria maculosa Gray RRLH 54928 H A Jun–Jul Streamside THP MES Lanceolate LC Native Asia N Rumex dentatus L RRLH 54700 H A May–Jun Mountain slopes THP MES Oblong NA Native to Asia N Rumex hastatus D.Don RRLH 54975 H P Apr–May Rocky crevices CHA MIC Hastate NA Native to the Himalayas N IV. ASTERIDS Santalales Santalaceae R.Br Viscum album L RRLH 55295 S P Nov–Dec Parasitic PH NPH MIC Obovate NA Native to Eurasia E Ericales

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Rubia, Manns, Link]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 23 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Ericaceae Durande Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude RRLH 55355 T P May–Jun Forest thickets PH MPH MES Ovate LC Native to the Himalayas N Rhododendron arboreum Sm RRLH 55204 T P May–Jun Forest slopes PH MPH MES Oblong LC Native to Asia N Primulaceae Batsch ex Borkh Lysimachia arvensis (L.) U.Manns & Anderb RRLH 55387 H A May–Jun Wastelands THP MEG Ovate NA Native to Asia N Gentianales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl Rubiaceae Juss Galium asperuloides Edgew RRLH 55213 H P Apr–May Mountain slopes CHA MIC Elliptic NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Galium aparine L RRLH 55394 H A Mar–Apr Forest thickets THP MIC Linear NA Native to South America and Eurasia E Rubia cordifolia L RRLH 54625 H A Aug–Sep Forest margins THP NP Lanceolate NA Native to India N Apocynaceae Juss Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall RRLH 52631 T P Apr–Jul Mixed forests PH MPH MEG Ovate LC Native to India N Boraginaceae Juss Cordia dichotoma G. Forst RRLH 52610 T P Feb–Mar Field margins PH MPH MEG Ovate LC Native to India N Solanales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl Convolvulaceae Juss Argyreia nervosa (Burm.f.) Bojer RRLH 55363 S P Mar–Apr Mixed forests PH NPH MES Cordate NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Solanaceae Juss Solanum americanum Mill RRLH 54619 H A Nov–Dec Wastelands THP MES Ovate NA Native to North America E Solanum virginianum L RRLH 54927 H A Oct–Dec Moist places THP MES Ovate to oblong NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad RRLH 52367 H P Nov–Dec Moist places THP MES Ovate LC Native to the Indian subcontinent N Lamiales Bromhead Oleaceae Hoffmanns. & Link Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle RRLH 55386 T P May–Jun Mixed forests PH MPH MES Ovate NA Native to the Himalayas N Plantaginaceae Juss Plantago lanceolata L RRLH 55365 H P May–Jun Wastelands HCP MES Lanceolate VU Native to Eurasia to Asia N

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Justicia, Hara]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 24 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Acanthaceae Juss Barleria cristata L RRLH 52605 H P May–Jun Forest slopes CHA MES Elliptic NA Native to Asia N Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees RRLH 52611 H A Jun–Jul Roadsides THP NP Ovate NA Native to Asia N Justicia adhatoda L RRLH 52653 H P Jan–Feb Roadsides PH MES Ovate toelliptic NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees RRLH 52619 H P Mar–May Forest thickets CHA MES Elliptic NA Native to India N Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees RRLH 54924 H P Nov–Dec Wastelands THP MES Oblong NA Native to Asia N Strobilanthes wallichii Nees RRLH 54997 S P Jun–Jul Open forests PH NPH NP Elliptic NA Native to the Himalayas N Lamiaceae Martinov Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm RRLH 54908 S P Jan–Mar Forest thickets PH NPH NP Oblong NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Isodon japonicus (Burm.f.) H.Hara RRLH 55224 S P Jul–Aug Forest thickets PH NPH NP Ovate NA Native to Asia N Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd RRLH 55225 S P Jul–Aug Forest thickets PH NPH MEG Ovate NA Native to Asia N Leucas ciliata Benth RRLH 54903 H P Jul–Oct Roadsides THP NP Lanceolate NA Native to Asia N Scutellaria discolor Wall ex Benth RRLH 55289 H P Jun–Jul Forest margins CHA MES Elliptic to ovate NA Native to the Himalayas N Vitex negundo L RRLH 55378 S P Apr–May Forest thickets PH NPH NP Lanceolate LC Native to Asia and Africa N Scrophulariaceae Juss Buddleja paniculata Wall RRLH 55369 S P Mar–Apr Forest thickets PH NPH MES Elliptic NA Native to Asia N Asterales Link Asteraceae Bercht. & J.Presl Ageratum conyzoides L RRLH 55357 H A Jan–Dec Field margins THP NP Ovate NA Native to South America E Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr & Sherff RRLH 54650 H A Sep–Oct Roadsides THP NP Ovate NA Native to the tropical and subtropical Old World E Elephantopus scaber L RRLH 55258 H A Jul–Aug Forest margins THP MES Oblanceolate NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N Galinsoga parviflora Cav RRLH 54630 H A Jul–Aug Field margins THP MIC Elliptic NA Native to South America E Gynura angulosa (Wall.) DC RRLH 54609 H P Sep–Oct Forest slopes CHA NP Obovate NA Native to Asia N

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Pinales, Brazil, Nord, Pariyar, Koch, Jacks, Pic, Fraser, Kandel]

Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 25 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Jacobaea nudicaulis (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) B.Nord RRLH 55277 H A Mar–Apr Grassy slopes THP NP Oblong NA Native to Asia N Oreoseris gossypina (Royle) X.D.Xu & V.A.Funk RRLH 55385 H P May–Jun Rocky slopes CHA MES Oblanceolate NA Native to the foothills of the Himalayas N Parthenium hysterophorus L RRLH 54947 H A Apr–May Wastelands THP NP Ovate toelliptic NA Native to South America E Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson RRLH 52646 H A Mar–May Moist places THP MES Elliptic NA Native to Brazil E Apiales Nakai Araliaceae Juss Hedera nepalensis K.Koch RRLH 55356 S P Oct–Nov Mixed forests PH NPH MIC Lanceolate NA Native to Asia N GYMNOSPERMS Pinales Gorozh. Pinaceae Spreng. ex F.Rudolphi Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don RRLH 55222 T P May–Jun Coniferous forests PH MPH MES Linear LC Native to the Himalayas N Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham ex D.Don RRLH 55225 T P Apr–May Coniferous forests PH MPH LEP Linear LC Native to the Himalayas N Pinus roxburghii Sarg RRLH 55223 T P Sep–Oct Coniferous forests PH MPH LEP Linear LC Native to the Himalayas N Pinus wallichiana A.B.Jacks RRLH 55224 T P May–Jun Coniferous forests PH MPH LEP Linear LC Native to the Himalayas N Taxaceae Gray Taxus baccata L RRLH 55293 T P Aug-Dec Coniferous forests PH NPH LEP Linear LC Native to the Himalayas N LYCOPHYTES AND FERNS Polypodiales Dennstaedtiaceae Pic.Serm Microlepia nepalensis (Spreng.) Fraser-Jenk., Kandel & Pariyar RRLH 54681 H A May–Jun Forest slopes THP MIC Ovate NA Native to Asia N Pteridaceae E.D.M. Kirchn Adiantum capillus-veneris L RRLH 54676 H A May–Jun Shady places THP NP Elliptic LC Native to the Indian subcontinent N Cheilanthes subvillosa Hook RRLH 54679 H A Mar–Apr Moist places THP NP Lanceolate NA Native to the Indian subcontinent N

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Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 26 of 31 Table 5. Cont Plant Groups (APG IV) Voucher Number Habit Life Span Phenology Period Habitat Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Sub-type of Raunkiaer’s Life Forms Leaf Spectrum Leaf Shape Conservation Status (IUCN) Specific Distribution Native (N)/ Exotic (E) Onychium japonicum (Thunb.) Kunze RRLH 54682 H A May–Jun Moist places THP MIC Ovate NA Native to Asia N Polystichum polyblepharum (Roem. ex Kunze) C.Presl RRLH 54683 H P Mar–Apr Shady places HCP LEP Lanceolate NA Native to North and South America E Pteris cretica L RRLH 54684 H P Mar–Apr Forest margins HCP MES Obovate NA Native to Africa and Eurasia E Pteris vittata L RRLH 54685 H P Mar–Apr Forest margins HCP MES Elliptic LC Native to Asia N Aspleniaceae Newman Asplenium adiantum–nigrum L RRLH 54677 H A May–Jun Rocky crevices THP LEP Ovate NA Native to Eurasia E Asplenium dalhousiae Hook RRLH 54678 H A May–Jun Rocky surfaces THP NP Ovate NA Native to India N Selaginellaceae Willk Selaginella eurynota A.Br RRLH 54686 H A Mar–Apr Shady places THP LEP Elliptic to ovate NA Native to Asia N (Abbreviations—Habit: H = herb; S = shrub; T = tree. Life span: A = annual; P = perennial. Raunkiaer’s Life Forms: CHA = chamaephyte; GEO = geophyte; HCP = hemicryptophyte; HDP = hydrophyte; MPH = megaphaneropyte; NPH = nanophanerophyte; PH = phanerophyte; THP = therophyte. Leaf spectra: LEP = leptophyllous; MEG = megaphyllous; MES = mesophyllous; MIC = microphyllous; NP = nanophyllous. Conservation status: LC = least concern; EN = endangered; VU = vulnerable; DD = data deficient; NT = near-threatened; NA = not available on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species’website/not assessed. Nativeness: E = exotic; N = native/indigenous).

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Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6063 27 of 31 4. Conclusions Scientific findings have proven that floristic analysis is a good indicator of the ecological wealth of the ecosystem within the given setup of the prevailing microhabitat conditions of a particular geographical region. The inventory of the floristic composition of India and elsewhere in the world would help in bridging the geographical knowledge gaps in invasion biology research. The inventory can serve as a scientific baseline for investigating the patterns, pathways, extent, impacts, and effective management of plant invasions in India Studying floristic composition and associated ecological parameters in the Himalayas is a necessity for biodiversity conservation, because it provides scientific data pertaining tothe environment for wildlife, and simultaneously contributes to the sustainable management of unique regional natural resources. The Bani Valley in the Northwestern Himalayan Region is floristically abundant with natural resources, which is evident from the occurrence of 196 different species of plants. The surprising levels of diversity recorded in the subtropical and temperate forest plots, as well as the low levels of similarity between these forests, suggest that the Bani Valley may harbor forests richer in plant species than previously imagined. More extensive explorations and inventories throughout the Himalayan regions are needed in order to get a better idea of just how diverse these forests may be. Analysis of life forms gives a clear picture of the biological spectrum of the Bani Valley, which in times to come will serve as baseline information for ecologists and environmentalists. In the present study, phanerophytes, therophytes, and hemicryptophytes share importance in depicting the ”phanero-thero-hemicrypto phytic”phytoclimate. This study can provide baseline data for use by policymakers and wildlife departments to develop conservation plans for the sustainable use of plant resources in the Himalayas, particularly for the subtropical and temperate species. It also suggests that biotic factors play an important role in shaping the vegetation of a landscape; therefore, anthropogenic stress can be minimized. Accordingly, we suggest that rich-diversity forests such as those found in the Bani Valley should be given higher priority in conservation planning than is presently the case. Finally, it is worthwhile to point out that the Bani Valley is rather close to several indigenous communities, which therefore means that these areas are inhabited, exploited, and intervened in by humans, although such impacts are very low. In times to come, conservation programs could be started in order to protect economically valuable flora by educating the native communities residing there Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.S. (Bikarma Singh) and C.M.M.; data curation, S.S., O.S., M.N.B., B.S. (Bishander Singh) and C.M.M.; formal analysis, S.S. and B.S. (Bikarma Singh); investigation, S.S.; methodology, S.S. and B.S. (Bikarma Singh); supervision, B.S. (Bikarma Singh); validation, O.S., M.N.B., B.S. (Bishander Singh) and C.M.M.; visualization, B.S. (Bikarma Singh) and C.M.M.; writing—original draft, S.S.; writing—review and editing, S.S., B.S. (Bikarma Singh) and C.M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript Funding: This research received no external funding Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable Data Availability Statement: First time generated during the study and presented in this article Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to the Head of the Department of Botany at Veer Kunwar Singh University, Ara, Bihar, and to the Directors of CSIR–IIIM Jammu and CSIR–NBRI Lucknow for providing herbarium facilities and moral support. The authors acknowledge the local people for revealing their traditional knowledge, and the J&K Forest Department for support in survey and exploration. Authors are thankful to AcSIR, Ghaziabad for affiliation and registration in the PhD program Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Adelaide, Antonio, Joshi, Laface, Risk, Vats, Reshi, Teng, Tripathi, Front, Sun, Bradley, Chaw, Reddy, Zuccarini, Woody, Dukes, Blumenthal, Nek, Serv, Hsieh, Weber, Weed, Early]

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