Unraveling Prapañca

[Full title: Unraveling Prapañca: A Yogācāra Examination of Consciousness, Language, and Liberation in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra]

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Citation: Cai, Tiantian. 2024 Unraveling Prapañca: A Yogacara Examination of Consciousness, Language, and Liberation in the La ˙nkavatara S utra Religions 15: 795 https://doi.org/10.3390/rel 15070795 Academic Editor: Todd Lewis Received: 3 June 2024 Revised: 25 June 2024 Accepted: 26 June 2024 Published: 29 June 2024 Copyright: © 2024 by the author Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommonsorg/licenses/by/ 4.0/) religions Article Unraveling Prapañca: A Yogacara Examination of Consciousness, Language, and Liberation in the La ˙nk avat ara S utra Tiantian Cai Asian Languages and Cultures, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; tcai 34@wisc.edu Abstract: In Yogacara epistemology, the termprapañca refers to various dimensions of the cognitive process in aspects ranging from consciousness, language formation, the conceptualization of subject–object duality, mental defilements, and ignorance. Given that the La ˙nkavatara S utra conveys the richness of early tenets for both the Yogacara and Madhyamaka traditions, an investigation of the meaning and discourse context ofprapañca is a necessity. This paper conducts a contextual examination of the wordprapañca , primarily addressing (1) a range of meanings, (2) possible characteristics, (3) conditions and consequences, especially the associations with the conceptualization ( vikalpa ) process, and (4) the significance of the elimination ofprapañca that the corresponding dialogue implies This paper finds thatprapañca is associated with dualistic conceptualization and the evolution of consciousness within sam . sara . It shows some qualities of the beginningless conceptual structure of sam . saric conditioned negativity and is related to language formation. As the discourse in La ˙nka adduces it as the root of suffering, liberation from it is a prerequisite for reaching enlightenment and achieving the state of Buddhahood Keywords: prapañca ; Yogacara; consciousness; enlightenment 1. Introduction In Chapter 18 of M ulamadhyamakakarika (MMK) of Nagarjuna which particularly addresses the concept of non-self, stanza 4 draws our attention to an antidote for suffering in sam . sara, saying ‘Internally and externally, when [the thought] ‘I’ and ‘my’ have ceased, appropriation ( upadana ) ceases. Through the cessation of appropriation, birth ceases’ 1 Here, the ceasing of birth refers to liberation from sam . sara. In other words, it concerns the path that leads to liberation from suffering by means of the cessation of the concept of self Following this stanza, the wordprapañca appears: Karmaklesaksayan moksah. karmaklesa vikalpatah./ Te prapañcat prapañcas tu s unyatayam . nirudhyate//MMK_18.5// 2 Through the cessation of karma and afflictive mental states comes liberation Karma and afflictive mental states come from conceptualizations ( vikalpa ), and they come from fabrication ( prapañca ). That, however, ceases in emptiness 3 The textual picture that Nagarjuna draws is a causal chain from conceptual structuring ( prapañca ) and conceptualizations ( vikalpa ) to afflictive mental status ( klesa ) and karma According to him, karma and afflictive mental status come from conceptuality, and conceptuality comes from fabrication orprapañca . In this regard, one needs initially to get rid of the fundamental cause— prapañca —so as to be free thereafter from conceptuality; one can then eliminate karma and the afflictive mental status and thus achieve liberation Considering this, prapañca seems to be the fundamental trait that should be uprooted from one’s mind, and it becomes salient when one foregrounds this account of salvation The treatment ofprapañca in Madhyamaka underscores its significance in Buddhist soteriology. While both Madhyamaka and Yogacara maintain the ultimate Buddhist objective of universal salvation, an analysis of its representations and characteristics in Yogacara Religions 2024 , 15 , 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel 15070795 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 2 of 20 treatises can enhance our comprehension of the doctrinal transition and nuanced distinctions within this soteriological aim. Although Madhyamikas emphasize the eradication ofprapañca in the achievement of soteriology 4 , this raises questions regarding the origins ofprapañca and the means by which its elimination can be attained. The Yogacarins epistemological approach, which highlights the role of consciousness and the intricacies of mental mechanisms, provides insights into the conditions that engender mental afflictions and, consequently, offers solutions for their eradication The termprapañca has an antecedent in Pali ( papañca ) and has been employed in various contexts by different philosophical schools. Ñanananda notes that in the Pali canon, the term conveys the meaning of “sense-perception” and indicates a proliferative tendency in ideation 5 The Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary briefly outlines its ambiguity in both the Pali canon and Mahayana treatises, offering translation references in Tibetan and Chinese. The Tibetan translation is regularly given as spros (pa) , which means spreading out, enlargement, and activity. Suzuki’s Index to the La ˙nkavatara S utra refers to three Chinese translations, xilun 戲 論 , which means frivolous talk, falsehood, and the error of false statements 6 In Yogacara epistemology, the notion ofprapañca refers to various aspects of conceptual processes, ranging from language formation, subject–object conceptualization, and the ongoing production of mental defilement 7 Akira Saito mentioned that, in early Yogacara treatises such as the Yogacarabh umi , Asa ˙nga and Vasubandhu treatedprapañca as a notion closely associated with the human application of terms and concepts, which are rooted in “mental, analytical, discursive, and proliferating activities” 8 Speaking in etymological terms, Lugli notes thatprapañca “derives from the verbal root √ pac and conveys the idea of proliferation, increment or expansion” 9 She cites the five interpretations that Schmithausen derives from the examination of “ Yogacarabh umi (not including the Tattvarthapatala ), Yogacara commentarial treatises and, partially, the Nikayas”—(1) subjective conceptual proliferation, (2) conceptual diversification, (3) phenomenal diversity, (4) forms of conceptualization close to abhinivesa or trsna , (5) existence ( bhava ), and (6) the basis of personal existence To further specify its connotation and to explore its role in the development of early Mahayana philosophy, it would be necessary to explore this key term in Yogacara treatises and some early Mahayana texts, in which the discourse and context ofprapañca could supply a range of possible interpretations from an epistemological perspective This paper focuses on the La ˙nkavatara S utra (hereafter, La ˙nka ) as the source discourse for our discussion of the meaning ofprapañca La ˙nka reflects the richness of early tenets of both the Yogacara and Madhyamaka traditions, and this is part of the reason for its frequent citation in later works. The multiplicity of explanations about the operation of consciousness provides accounts for the workings of the mind, and the termprapañca , in particular, occurs with some regularity. Suzuki’s translation of the wordprapañca primarily references the Chinese versions of the La ˙nkavatara S utra . In light of this, the discussions on consciousness and mental functionality in the La ˙nkavatara S utra offer valuable insights into the meaning ofprapañca and its relationship with other concepts pertaining to mental mechanisms from a Yogacara perspective. However, what we need to keep in mind is that the narrative of La ˙nka does not provide a systematic, linear framework, and as a result, the regular occurrence ofprapañca shows some variation in meaning and connotation, inevitably resulting in ambiguity and multiple interpretations. Nevertheless, a contextual study could still help to glean various meanings of this key, thus deepening our understanding of how it fits into the overall account of consciousness and liberation in Mahayana Buddhism. In this regard, the contextual analysis becomes a necessity despite the complexity To exploreprapañca in La ˙nka , this paper addresses the following: (1) the range of meaning ofprapañca , (2) its characteristics, (3) the conditions for its arising and possible consequences, and (4) the significance of the elimination ofprapañca for the realization of enlightenment.

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 3 of 20 This study finds that the meaning ofprapañca is related to dualistic conceptualization It shows some of the qualities of a beginningless conceptual structure, which is conditioned by sam . saric negativity and is related to language formation. As the discourse in La ˙nkaidentifiesprapañca as the root of suffering, liberation from it is a prerequisite for reaching enlightenment and achieving the state of Buddhahood. One can claim that the variations of meanings and connotations ofprapañca in La ˙nka underlies typical Yogacara ideas about the function of the afflicted mind. Likewise, it is related to the emphasis on the problematic nature of language, especially the notion that the naming and claiming process involves merely conceptualized phenomena without any real referents. As such, prapañca— or, more precisely, it is elimination—is central to the understanding as well as the experience of emptiness ( s unyata ). This comprehension encompasses not only the realization of the absence of independent inherent existence in an ontological sense but also the emptiness of subject–object dualism from the Yogacara epistemological perspective 2. Background The La ˙nkavatara S utra is considered an essential work in the Mahayana tradition However, the complexity of language usage, the multiplicity of layers and ideas, and the abundance of crucial concepts blended across schools make an academic analysis of the text considerably complex. Notably, the termprapañca appears in the Pali canon as well as many Yogacara and Madhyamaka treaties, but despite its ubiquity and tight connection with the cognitive process, various interpretations by traditional commentators and academic scholars have given rise to divergent conclusions and definitions The date and author(s) of La ˙nka are still unclear. Records for the earliest Chinese translation show that the time of its composition falls in the 5 th century 10 The current primary texts comprise Sanskrit editions, two Tibetan translations, and three surviving Chinese translations. The edition provided by Bunyiu Nanji o is currently considered a reliable Sanskrit edition, which is based on four Sanskrit manuscripts and some other primary materials 11 Nanji o consulted the three versions of the Chinese translation to edit his copies as well 12 A later edition from Vaidya collated some of the previous work and arguably is overall an improvement. This study relies on the Sanskrit texts from both Nanji o and Vaidya, facilitated by the digital resources of the Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon and GRETIL 13 Regarding modern English translations, this paper mainly makes references to Suzuki’s work. Moreover, I have consulted the contemporary scholarship on the text. In that context, Japanese scholars, in particular, have made great efforts to examine various aspects of La ˙nka , covering the concept of tathagatagarbha ( Ogawa 1961 ), citta ( Kamiya 1975 ), dharma , and bhava ( Kamiya 1977 ) as well as cittamatra ( Kan 1980 ). Regarding English secondary scholarship, the most relevant studies for this paper include works from Lambert Schmithausen ( 1969 ), Florin Giripescu Sutton ( 1991 ), Bikkhu Ñanananda ( 1997 ), Aucke D Forsten ( 2006 ), and Ligeia Lugli ( 2011 ). Turning now to the secondary scholarship in English, Sutton examined the concept of existence and enlightenment in La ˙nka . Although touching upon Yogacara epistemology and sketching the significance of liberation from the dual categories of discrimination ( vikalpa ) and language, he did not elaborate onprapañca specifically. Forsten focused on the second chapter of La ˙nka , in which he approached the concept of svacittadr.syamatra based on a text-critical analysis and translated the phrase as ‘[the threefold world is] merely something visible consisting of one’s own mind’, further emphasizing that the term alludes to philosophical idealism. However, Lugli criticized Forsten’s approach to the term by questioning his contrast between philology and hermeneutics 14 and his unclear philological analysis. Later, Lugli examined the role of language in Indian Mahayana, which particularly took La ˙nka as the reference. According to her exploration, La ˙nka shows the Mahayana idea of verbalization as being “inefficacious and potentially misleading”. 15 She argues that, in La ˙nka , “language cannot express what is undifferentiated”, and “verbalization affects the speaker’s conceptual representation of the world and informs the misperception of reality as diversity;” therefore, “enlightenment emerges in silence” 16 It is undeniable that

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 4 of 20 La ˙nka lays weight on language and the cognitive distortions that emerge from language; nevertheless, the particular focus on language and the emphasis on the linguistic approach involve the risk of overlooking other possible interpretations and a range of meanings for particular concepts With regards to the specific termprapañca , earlier scholarships include works of Jacques May ( Candrakirti and May 1959 ), Lambert Schmithausen ( 1969 ), and Bhikkhu Ñanananda ( 1997 ). In his edition of Prasannapada , Jacques May points out thatprapañca is more about “the operation of the function [of discursive thought] (“expansion”, differentiation of the global real into distinct objects and concepts. . .), and the result of this operation” 17 instead of the function of mere expansion or proliferation. Lambert Schmithausen also underlinesprapañca as an action, whereas he touches upon the interconnectedness of the action of “spreading” and maintains the objective sense ofprapañca when it concerns the manifold appearance of the world. According to him, “prapañcah. simply means ‘manifoldness’. . .”. Bhikkhu Ñanananda draws attention to the use ofpapañca in the Pali canon and the commentarial literature thereof, and he reflects briefly on the termprapañca in Mahayana Buddhism. In accordance with his exploration, papañca (the Pali term forprapañca in Sanskrit) is essentially connected with the process of sense-perception, and “ papañcasañña-sa ˙nkha ” could be interpreted as “concepts, reckonings, designations or linguistic conventions characterized by the prolific conceptualizing tendency of the mind”. 18 With regards to Mahayana tradition, Ñanananda particularly cites the Madhyamikakarika and La ˙nka to underline the significance ofprapañca in the philosophical system of Madhyamika dialect in terms of conceptual constructions and rationality; 19 however, a context-based analysis of the meaning ofprapañca is largely overlooked The scholarship onprapañca could be divided into two major trends. One launches into Madhyamaka treatises. Another tends to address the concept from the Yogacara perspective. For example, based on an enumerative occurrence of the application ofprapañca in M ulamadhyamakakarika and its corresponding commentary, Akira Saito maintained that, for Nagarjuna , prapañca means a “mental activity of conceptualization made in various sets of terms” 20 He pointed out that although both Nagarj una and Yogacara thinkersconsiderprapañca as the fundamental cause of defilement, their understandings differ However, he did not clarify the different understanding ofprapañca in Yogacara contexts nor its range of meanings. Furthermore, Mark Siderits claims that there is a paradox thatprapañca entails in Madhyamaka discourse. According to him, the concept embodies the falsities of the conceptualization, which contrasts with the understanding of emptiness, as “Madhyamikas claim there are indirect strategies one may use to rule out whole classes of candidates for dharma hood;” “but there can be no strategy that encompasses all uses of all concepts”, and thus there is “no master argument for emptiness” as “a consequence of the emptiness of emptiness”. However, the application of radical contextualist semantics shows a solution for the paradox thatprapañca has shown. He contends that “to believe in ultimate truth-makers is to believe in context-transcendent truth-conditions”, 21 and the presupposition entailed by the context-transcendent truth-conditions could be rejected by radical contextualist semantics. In terms of a successful reduction along with mistakes shown in hypostatizing concepts, prapañca is false yet useful as being reliably associated with our ultimate aims to see the false of presupposition. He underlines the use ofprapañca to reveal the falsification of concepts for Madhyamikas, and this discussion could be further developed by looking at the role ofprapañca from Yogacara’s view With regards to the Yogacara perspective, Lugli supplies a terminological investigation ofprapañca from an etymological and linguistic perspective. According to her, prapañca - vasana , despite being a newly introduced term in La ˙nka , semantically coincides with the term abhilapa-vasana in the Mahayanasam . graha and the vyavahara-vasana in the Sam . dhinirmocana . They all collectively highlight the effects of verbalization and language on future perceptions. She tookprapañca as “differentiation” and further maintained that it accounted for “why verbalization is the origin of conceptual fabrication ( parikalpita ) and causes the perpetuation of illusion through vasana ” 22 It is undeniable that La ˙nka proposes

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 5 of 20 prapañca as a beginningless factor that gives rise to “the cyclical arising of misperception through language” 23 In spite of closely correlating to conceptualization ( vikalpa ) while distinguishing from it, Lugli did not clarify in what senseprapañca is distinguished from vikalpa and parikalpita , and whether there are possible connections. Moreover, an emphasis on its association with language could prompt one to overlook other features ofprapañca , such as its relevance to pre-linguistic cognition that can still be characterized as conceptual and the possible consequences of attachment toprapañca, especially in that latter context Building on and departing from the prior work sketched above, I propose to reexamine and re-evaluate the range of meanings ofprapañca in La ˙nka . Setting aside a strong emphasis on its association with language, this paper will focus more on its nature as a beginningless and negative causal structure that results in mental afflictions. The occurrence of these afflictions can be understood as a conceptualization ( vikalpa ) process that appropriates phenomenal events in reality 3. The Interpretation of Prapañca in La ˙nka This paper will examine the meaning ofprapañca in La ˙nka in four ways: (1) contextual analysis of its meaning in the compounds in which it is embedded; (2) its connection with vikalpa and vasana ; (3) its significance for comprehending mere representations of mind ; and (4) the necessity of its eradication in relation to Mahayana soteriology 3.1. A Contextual Analysis of the Meaning of Prapañca The precise meaning ofprapañca in La ˙nka and in Mahayana texts more generally is difficult to determine. Regarding the range of meaning thatprapañca exhibits in La ˙nka , this taxonomy of meanings could be helpful, but there appears to be more to say aboutprapañca The contextual analysis will help situate the termprapañca within its linguistic environment in the discourse of the La ˙nkavatara S utra . This approach aims to specify the grammatical feature of the term concerning its morphological, semantic, and syntactical connections with other closely related terms. In the La ˙nkavatara S utra , prapañca encompasses meanings such as beginningless conceptual structure, characterized by sam . saric negativity and mental proliferation related to language formation. These meanings, detailed in the following sections, contrast with the use of this term in texts such as the Vastusam . grahani section of the Yogacarabh umi (YBh) and the Cintamayibh umi in the Basic Section of YBh, which explicitly emphasize the linguistic and verbal aspects over the mental aspects 24 Meanwhile, these meanings show some similarities to the usage in texts such as the Sam . dhinirmocana S utra (SNS), whereprapañca serves as a mental proliferation that conceptualizes phenomenal events. 25 In terms of the larger themes with whichprapañca is connected in La ˙nka , more than half of the lexical occurrences fall in Chapter 2, which concerns the operation and function ofvijñana (consciousness). Some other occurrences fall in Chapter 3, Chapter 4, and Chapter 6, whose themes mainly address self-nature, ignorance, self-realization, and enlightenment. Within the broad themes found in these various chapters, the discussion ofprapañca relates more specifically to themes concerning the erroneous views held by brahmans and logicians, the function and operation of consciousness, the necessities of the realization of Buddhahood, word discrimination, dualistic notions of existence and perception, and the characteristics of self-nature. To understand more precisely howprapañca is involved in these themes, it is necessary to conduct a detailed exanimation of the several Sanskrit compounds in which it occurs because it is rarely used on its own outside of a compound 3.2. Prapañca Compounds in La ˙nka According to the number of constituents in each compound, Table 1 , the Morphological Structure of Compounds withprapañca (attached in Section 3.4 ), displays the variations of the morphological structure that involveprapañca . The compounds that appear more than once are marked by a number. Despite the complexity of compounds, there appears

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 6 of 20 to be a rather regular sequence in the morphological structure—from anadikala (beginningless time), prapañca , dausthulya (sam . saric negativity) to vasana (imprint). Here, the word anadikala , meaning beginningless ( anadi ) time ( kala ), indicates the causal and innate natureofprapañca . It signifies thatprapañca is intrinsic and arises in dependence on causes and conditions. According to Edgerton’s Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary , the term dausthulya is associated with various forms of wickedness and depravity 26 When associated with prapañca and vasana , it conveys the meaning of sam . saric negativity, highlighting the continuity of suffering in the cycles of life and rebirth Vasana represents subtle tendencies that arise in consciousness as a result of repeated exposure to positive or negative phenomenal events Vasana is also described as subtle forms of afflictions ( klesa ) that obstruct the attainment of Buddhahood 27 Specifically, it is noticeable thatprapañca is closely associated with vikalpa (conceptualization), dausthulya , and vasana , and Table 1 manifests at least four tendencies: (1) Anadikala occurs beforeprapañca , (2) vasana tends to be placed at the end of the compound, (3) dausthulya tends to occur betweenprapañca and vasana and embodies a closer relation withprapañca , and (4) the position of vikalpa tends to be flexible; it appears either before or afterprapañca , but in most cases, it is placed before vasana and after dausthulya The general trends in these compounds raise questions about the relation betweenprapañca , vikalpa , vasana , and dausthulya . Accordingly, the next section of the paper will explore these connections and provide possible interpretations. As some passages offer clues for the grammatical relation betweenprapañca and vikalpa , let us examine this pair first 3.3. Relation with VikalpaPrapañca coexists with vikalpa in many contexts. The following examples convey two major points: (1) Prapañca is semantically distinguished from vikalpa ; (2) vikalpa emerges from or is one of the consequences ofprapañca . The first example comes from a passage in the second chapter about various forms of cessation ( nirodha ). Here, the “cessation of the continuum” ( prabandhanirodha ) is discussed: prabandhanirodhah. punar Mahamate yasmat sa pravartate 28 / yasmad iti Mahamate yadasrayena yadalambanena ca/tatra yadasrayam anadikalaprapañcadausthulyavasana yadalambanam . svacittadr.syavijñanavisaye vikalpah 29 “Moreover, Mahamati, the cessation of the continuum is [the cessation of that] from which it occurs. Mahamati, “that from which” means through that which is its basis and that which is its support. Here, the basis ( asraya ) is the imprints of the sam . saric negativity associated with beginningless prapañca; the support is the conceptualizations about the object of consciousness, namely, something perceptible that is [actually] one’s own mind” Here, the basis for the continued occurrence of perceptual consciousness (pravrttivijñana) consists in the imprints forprapañca , while the support is the conceptualizations (vikalpa) While both contribute to the flow of the six forms of experiential consciousness, it is clearthatprapañca and vikalpa connect to distinctive aspects of consciousness, namely, as their basis or foundation and as their “support”—i.e., their focal object 30 The next example comes again from the second chapter in a passage describing various forms of distorted cognition, including the “conceptualization that is an imputation of an unreal characteristic” ( asallaksanasamaropavikalpa ): punaraparam . mahamate asallaksanasamaropasya laksanam . katamat? yaduta skandhadhatvayatananamasatsvasamanyalaksanabhinivesah. idam evam, idam. nanyathety etad dhi mahamate asallaksanasamaropasya laksanam/esa hi mahamate asallaksanasamaropavikalpo ‘nadikalaprapañcadausthulyavicitravasanabhinivesat pravartate/ 31 “Mahamati, there is another characteristic of the imputation of unreal characteristics. What is it? It is, namely, the fixation ( abhinivesa ) on the unreal unique and shared characteristics of the aggregates, the constituents, and the spheres,

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 7 of 20 as in [the thought], “This is just this, and not otherwise”. Mahamati, this very conceptualization that imputes unreal characteristics [to those things] occurs through fixation from the variegated imprints for sam . saric negativity throughbeginninglessprapañca ” The ablative ending of abhinive ˙ sa (fixation, attachment, grasping) 32 indicates that the origin of vikalpa is dependent on imprints ofprapañca 33 In this regard, vikalpaandprapañca are not only syntactically separated but also semantically distinct from each other The wording here indicates that these terms convey different connotations and specify their causal relation—the imprints in relation toprapañca lead to vikalpa, as mediated by abhinivesa The following passage also comes from the second chapter, introducing four types of Speech ( vak ) and the corresponding conditions that give rise to each type of Speech The example here particularly shows the type of Speech associated withprapañca and its condition caturvidham . mahamate vagvikalpalaksanam . bhavati/yad uta laksanavak svapnavag dausthulyavikalpabhinivesavag anadivikalpavak// 34 . . anadikalavikalpavak punar mahamate anadikalaprapañcabhinivesadausthulyasvabijavasanatah. pravartate/etad dhi mahamate caturvidham. vagvikalpalaksanam iti me yad uktam idam . tat pratyuktam// 35 “Oh Mahamati, the conceptualization of Speech ( vak ) is of four types: definition- Speech, dream-Speech, Speech from fixation on the conceptualization of sam . saric negativity, and Speech from beginningless conceptualization . . Moreover, Mahamati, Speech from beginningless conceptualization is arisen from the imprints of its own seed, which is the sam . saric negativity from the fixation of beginninglessprapañca . Oh, Mahamati, this is the fourfold wordconceptualization, and this is my answer to what was said” In this passage, Speech from conceptualization is categorized into four dimensions, and each dimension corresponds with one reason. The first two categories could be considered as Speech with apparently extra-mental reference, and Speech without extramental reference Vikalpa occurs as a term in the third and fourth dimensions, which do not concern the reference of language; rather, it is about the formation of words, which is attributed to discrimination processes. On the one hand, words cannot exist without the application of concepts which is endowed with sam . saric negativity. On the other hand, the formation of words concerns the beginningless conceptualization process The difference between the third and the fourth dimension lies in the causes of words that the prose notes: the cause of the third dimension is the anusamarana (recollection), while the fourth is vasana (imprints). In other words, recollection indicates that attachment/grasping of concepts involves intentional efforts, whereas imprints show the conceptualization process does not necessarily require an effort. However, regardless of whether there are efforts or not, words of conceptualization arise due to the imprints in the consciousness seed, which is influenced and ripened by sam . saric negativity. And that negativity, which fuels the rebirth, comes from the grasping ofprapañca . In this regard, prapañca underpins the basis of the conceptualization process.

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 8 of 20 Table 1. Morphological structure of compounds withprapañca Compounds Morphological Structure Anadikalaprapañcadausthulyavicitravipakavikalpavasana Anadikala Prapañca Dausthulya Vicitra Vipaka Vikalpa vasana Anadikalaprapañcabhinivesadausthulyasvabijavasana Anadikala Prapañca Abhinivesa-dausthulya Svabija Vasana Anadikaladausthulyavikalpaprapañcavasana Anadikala Dausthulya Vikalpa Prapañca Vasana Anadikalaprapañcadausthulyavikalpavasana Anadikala Prapañca Dausthulya Vikalpa Vasana 2 Anadikalaprapañcadausthulyar upavasana Anadikala Prapañca Dausthulya R upa Vasana Anadikalavividhaprapañcadausthulyavasana Anadikala Vividha Prapañca Dausthulya Vasana Anadikalaprapañcadausthulyavicitravasana Anadikala Prapañca Dausthulya Vicitra Vasana Anadikalaprapañcavikalpavasanadausthulya Anadikala Prapañca Vikalpa Vasana Dausthulya Anadikalaprapañcadausthulyavasana Anadikala Prapañca Dausthulya Vasana 3 Anadikalavividhaprapañcavikalpava Anadikala Vividha Prapañca Vikalpa Anadikalaprapañcavisayavasana Anadikala Prapañca Visaya Vasana Anadikalavakprapañcavasana Anadikala Prapañca Vada Vasana Anadikalaprapañcadausthulyasvaprativikalpa Anadikala Prapañca Dausthulya Svaprati Vikalpa Bahyacittadr.syavikalpanadikalaprapañca 36 Bahyacittadr.sya Vikalpa Anadikala Prapañca Vikalpaanadikalaprapañcadarsane Vikalpa Anadikala Prapañca Darsana Anadikalaprapañcavasana Anadikala Prapañca Vasana Anadikalaprapañcadausthulya Anadikala Prapañca Dausthulya Anadikalabhavabhavaprapañca Anadikala Bhavabhava Prapañca Svacittadr.syavikalpaprapañca Svacittadr.sya Vikalpa Prapañca Sarvadrstiprapañcavikalpa Sarvadrsti Prapañca VikalpaJalpaprapañca Jalpa Prapañca Vikalpaprapañca 37 Vikalpa Prapañca 4 Sarvaprapañca Sarva Prapañca 2 Prapañcavasana Prapañca VasanaPrapañca Prapañca

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Step, Form, Read, John, Vas, Ngan, Dunne, Layer, Reading, Last, Tell, Len, Take, Coming, Noun]

Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 9 of 20 3.4. Relation with Vasana Another issue that the compound analysis raises is the relationship between vasanaandprapañca . As we mentioned earlier, the imprints ofprapañca are consequent to vikalpa (conceptualization). However, the direct relation betweenprapañca and vasana has not been clarified. According to the compounds collected in Table 1 , prapañca closely associates with three words— anadikala, dausthulya, and vasana , and the word sequence in compounds shows anadikala coming first , thenprapañca, dausthulya, and the last one is vasana To analyze a Sanskrit compound, the foremost step is to clarify the grammatical relationship between constituents by analyzing the morphological layers in a compound This step will determine the semantic association between constituents and contribute to a clearer and more accurate understanding of both the termprapañca and the meaning of the compound According to John Dunne’s analysis of the two basic forms of imprints ( vasana ) as (1) “those that are ‘placed’ ( ahita ) in the storehouse by experiences”, and (2) “those that are innate or ‘beginningless’ ( anadi )”, it is reasonable to take the second form of imprints which is in relation to “beginningless” into account. In the first layer of aprapañca compound, we can thus consider an attributive relation between anadikala and vasana 38 With this in mind, a Karmadharaya compound 39 indicates a meaning as “beginningless imprints/perfuming” Then, the second layer of the compound is constructed byprapañca , dausthulya (samsaric negativity), and vasana (perfuming/imprints). There could be two ways of division of this compound: (1) prapañca [dausthulya vasana], and (2) [prapañca dausthulya] vasana The linguistics feature and traces from commentary tell that the second reading should be adopted in this context. There are three reasons that we can consider. First, in terms of the linguistic feature ofprapañca and dausthulya , prapañca is a substantive noun while vasana , distinctively, is a verbal noun; thus, the first two constituents tend to be bound (see layer 3 in the diagram). For another thing, the phrase spros pa’i gnas ngan len shown inJñanasribhadra’s commentary on La ˙nka survived in Tibetan indicates that spros pa ( prapañca ) and gnas ngan len ( dausthulya ) become associated through a genitive relationship, which means “the samsaric negativity ofprapañca” 40 Moreover, with regard to sam . saric negativity ( dausthulya ), which mostly appears betweenprapañca and vasana in the compound, it most likely assumes a Yogacara account, whereby “the cycle perpetuates itself through karmic traces” 41 In this regard, the relation of constituents in the third layer would be read as appositional or attributive, meaning “the sam . saric negativeprapañca, ” or “theprapañca which is the sam . saric negativity” 42 anadikala [ prapañca dausthulya vasana ] layer 1 [ prapañca dausthulya ] vasana layer 2 prapañca dausthulya layer 3 After clarifying the grammatical structures of layer 1 and layer 2, a problem arises concerning the relationship betweenprapañca (which is sam . saric negativity) and vasana . It is important to outline all possible grammatical relationships between these two constituents to identify and determine the most reasonable interpretation within the context of the La ˙nkavatara S utra According to Apte, the word vasana is a verbal noun meaning perfuming or imprinting, which derives from the verbal root √ vas 43 According to Sanskrit grammar, there could be the following possible interpretations: 1 Instrumental TatpurusaPrapañcena vasana , meaning perfuming by means ofprapañca 2 Ablative TatpurusaPrapañcat vasana , meaning the vasanafromprapañca 3 Accusative TatpurusaPrapañcam . vasana , meaningprapañca is what is being perfumed (“perfuming perfurmed on vasana as its object”).

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Mode, Tacca, Left, Trace, Present, Khyati, Manner, Bija, Case, Image, Look]

Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 10 of 20 4 Dative Tatpurusa Prapañcaya vasana , meaning perfuming for the purpose of producingprapañca 5 Locative Tatpurusa Prapañce vasana , meaning the vasana located inprapañca 6 Genitive Tatpurusa Prapañcasya vasana, meaning the vasanaofprapañca , which could indicate that the vasana is the cause or source ofprapañca (as in, “the imprints for [the arisal of] prapañca ”), or that the vasana is coming fromprapañca (as in the imprints that have been placed by prapañca) 7 Karmadharaya , meaning the vasana that isprapañca 8 Dvandva , prapañca and vasana To identify the relationship between vasana and the constituents preceded, we need to have a look at other applications of vasana in La ˙nka . For example, here is a statement in which the position ofprapañca is substituted by nagara (city) sa ca nagarakrtir anadikalanagarabijavasanabhinivesat khyati tacca nagaram . nanagaram . na nagaram 44 “And the image of the city appears due to fixation on the seedvasana for [cognizing] the city from beginningless time. And that city is not a non-city, nor is it a city” According to this message, the nagara-bija vasana is a karmic trace or imprint that prompts the appearance in cognition of an image identified as a city, but that imprint itself is presumably the result of previous experience of what is identified as a city. Thus, the relationship between the imprints and the city is reciprocal. In other words, the formation of imprints entails a cyclical process as a representing and re-enhancing mode, in which nagara - vasana indicates cognition by identifying a mental image as a city. In this regard, the imprints that come from previous cognition of a city can result in the present recognition of the city In addition, the formation of the notion of city is further represented and re-enhanced in a cyclic manner. The city presented in mind is not a real city nor an unreal city; instead, it is a mental event caused by a cyclically conceptualized operation. The cognition of the city resulted from a notion of the city. And, the notion of a city is re-produced and re-enhanced in the recognition of a city, in which the process leaves imprints of conceptual tendency behind. Therefore, it is possible to say the structure of a vasana with a genitive case preceded by a non-case noun conveys a relationship evincing mutual influences and productions between vasana and the noun evameva mahamate anadikalatirthyapraprañcavadavasanabhinivistah. ekatvanyatvastitvanastitvavadan abhinivisante svacittadr.syamatranavadharitamatayah./ 45 “In this very way, Oh Mahamati, those who are fixated on the beginningless imprints for theprapañca discourse of the Tirthikas are fixated on discourses about identity/difference and existence/non-existence, [and as such] they have opinions that have not determined that [the objects of experience are actually] one’s own mind [presented as] perceptual objects” In accordance with the example of nagara , the compound anadikala-tirthya-praprañcavadavasana-abhinivista in the example above maintains the same morphological structure as anadikala-nagarabija-vasana-abhinivesa . Therefore, it is reasonable to interpret the relationshipbetweenpraprañca-vada and vasana as a genitive Tatpurusa , meaning the words-imprints are the genitive object ofprapañca ; specifically, the imprints andprapañca are related in a mutually re-enforced mode. Imprints are left by mental activities thatprapañca involved in (imprints result fromprapañca ), whilstprapañca leads to imprints, being interconnected as the cause and effect in a cyclic continuum of sam . sara. In this regard, amongst the eight possible interpretations above, the sixth (genitive Tatpurusa ) that is most relevant means

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Bala, Balas, Blessed, Yada, Worlds, Yadi, Atha, Aha, Api, Sati, Tad, Eva, Kim, Yat, Yati, Names, Knowledge, Tada, Since, Shati]

Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 11 of 20 thatprapañca could cause vasana to occur, and at the same time, the vasana is the latent propensity that causesprapañca to arise 3.5. About Representation of the Mind Some negative aspects ofprapañca include obstacles to the true awareness of visible objects as representations of the mind La ˙nka see true awareness as having to do with the use of language jalpaprapañcabhirata hi balas tattve na kurvanti matim . visalam/ jalpo hi traidhatukaduhkhayonis tattvam. hi duhkhasya vinasahetuh //3.93// 46 “Indeed, childish people who are of verbiage andprapañca do not think extensively about the ultimate. Indeed, verbiage is the origin of suffering in the three worlds, and the ultimate is the cause for being free from suffering” This text makes it clear that one ofprapañca ’s detrimental consequences is its propensity to acquire discourses, words, and names. And because of the verbiage propensity that childish people have, they fail to comprehend the ultimate. The following dialogue between Mahamati and Buddha explains the erroneous nominalization by emphasizing that the awareness and the realization of representations of reality as mind should never be confused with a verbiage name of mind-only. The basic idea is that when one first adopts words and names, the mind has already conceptualized objects as external existence and has designated a name upon them. In this regard, one is only concerned with forms or labels of references, thus further making judgments of the reference in terms of whether the reference is existent or non-existent. Despite one’s assertion that the mind is all that exists, it is still the name of the ultimate awareness instead of the awareness itself. True awareness should be a realization that awareness does not perceive an object that is taken as its focus because there are only representations of the mind, and there is even nonperception of the awareness, either Mahamati specifically questioned the Buddha as to how it was possible that nothing could sustain awareness because he believed awareness exists wherever there is a knowing object. If one ignores individuality, generality, plurality, and self-nature, then the awareness that has nothing to focus on cannot possibly be awareness; rather, it is simply non-awareness. In other words, Mahamati thinks that awareness should refer to a knowing object that evinces individuality, generality, multiplicity, and self-nature. Otherwise, knowledge is another word for non-awareness punar api mahamatir aha/yat punar idam uktam . bhagavata—yada tv alambyam artham nopalabhate jñanam . tada vijñaptimatravyavasthanam . bhavati/vijñapter grahyabhavad grahakasyapy agrahanam. bhavati/tadagrahanan na pravartate jñanam. vikalpasam.sabditam/ tat kim . punar bhagavan bhavanam . svasamanyalaksanananyavaicitryanavabodhan nopalabhate jñanam?atha svasamanyalaksanavaicitryabhavasvabhavabhibhavan nopalabhate jñanam/atha kudyakatavapraprakarabhujalapavanagnivyavahitatidurasamipyan nopalabhate jñanam . jñeyam/atha balandhavrddhayogadindriyanam . jñeyartham . nopalabhatejñanam/tad yadi bhagavan svasamanyalaksanananyavaicitryanavabodhan nopalabhate jñanam, na tarhi bhagavan jñanam . vaktavyam, ajñanam/etad bhagavan yad vidyamanam artham . nopalabhate/atha svasamanyalaksanavaicitryabhavasvabhavabhibhavan nopalabhate jñanam, tad ajñanam eva bhagavan na jñanam/jñeye 47 sati bhagavan jñanam pravartate, nabhavat/tadyogac ca jñeyasya jñanam ity ucyate/ 48 “And again, Mahamati said: But there is this that the Blessed one said, namely, that when awareness is not perceiving an object which is taken as its focus, then there is the establishment of mere representation ( vijñaptimatra ). Because the representation has no object to be grasped, there is the no apprehension of a grasper also. Since there is no apprehension of that, an awareness called ‘conceptual’ does not occur. Also, the Blessed one, does awareness not perceive [objects] because there is no cognition of the non-different variegation of particular and general characteristics, or does awareness not perceive [objects] without realizing of the

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: List, Maya, Teach, Senses, Blind, Mats, Walls, Wrong, Wind, Mine]

Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 12 of 20 nature and variations of their particular and general characteristics? Or is it that awareness does not perceive an object to be known because of the proximity or distance of what is obscured by walls, mats, ramparts, fences, the earth, the water, the wind, or fire? Or is it due to having the senses of one who is infantile, blind, old, and so on that awareness does not perceive an object to be known? If, Blessed One, awareness does not perceive [objects] because there is no cognition of the non-different variegation of particular and general characteristics, then, Blessed One, it should not be called awareness, [it should be called] non-awareness. This is not perceiving a presently existing object, Blessed One. Because of not realizing the nature and variations of [objects’] particular and general characteristics, awareness does not perceive [objects], then it is just non-awareness; it is not awareness, Blessed One. When there is an object to be known, awareness occurs, Blessed one; it does not occur due to something non-existent. And because of its connection with the object to be known, it is called ‘awareness’.” The Buddha answers in the following way Bhagavan aha/na hi tan mahamate evam ajñanam . bhavati/jñanam eva tan mahamate, najñanam/na caitat sam . dhayoktam . maya—yada tvalambyam artham . nopalabhate jñanam tada vijñaptimatravyavasthanam . bhavatiti/kim . tu svacittadr.syamatravabodhat sadasator bahyabhavabhavaj jñanam apy artham . nopalabhate/tadanupalambhaj jñanajñeyayor apravrttih./vimoksatrayanugamaj jñanasyapy anupalabdhih./na ca tarkika anadikalabhavabhavaprapañcavasitamataya evam . prajananti te caprajananto bahyadravyasam . sthanalaksanabhavabhavam. krtva vikalpasyapravrttim. cittamatratam. nirdeksyanti/atmatmiyalaksanagrahabhinivesabhinivistah. svacittadr.syamatranavabodhaj jñanam. jñeyam. prativikalpayanti/te ca jñanajñeyaprativikalpanaya bahyabhavabhavapravicayanupalabdher ucchedadrstim asriyante/ 49 “Said the Blessed One: Oh Mahamati, it is not non-awareness in this way; it is just awareness, and not non-awareness, Mahamati. It is not intending this, that I said the following: when awareness does not perceive an object which is taken as its focus, then there is the establishment of mere representation. Rather, awareness indeed is not perceiving objects because, through recognizing that [apparent objects] are merely one’s own mind presented as perceptible, there are no external objects, whether real or unreal. And through the nonperception of those [external objects], there is no occurrence of awareness and what is to be known. And through realizing the three forms of liberation, there is also the nonperception even of awareness. Also, the Sophists ( tarkika ), with their minds perfumed withprapañca about existence and non-existence from beginningless time, do not know wisely in this way. And not wisely knowing this, having construed [mererepresentation] as the absence of external substance, shape, characteristics, and existence, would teach that mind-only is just the non-occurrence of conceptuality Attached by the attachment and grasping to the characteristics of ‘I’ and ‘Mine’, they conceptualize awareness and objects of awareness due to not recognizing that [what is appearing] is merely one’s mind presented as perceptible. And due to conceptualizing awareness and objects of awareness, they resort to a nihilistic view because they do not perceive the distinction between the existence and non-existence of external things” The verses 3.58, 3.59, and 3.60 following this dialogue briefly summarize the response to Mahamati’s inquiry, which highlights the aforementioned wrong views because of nonawareness. I did not list verses here because the content of these verses has been explicitly exhibited by the passage above Then, the Buddha’s answer continues on as below: Punar aparam . mahamate balaprthagjana anadikalaprapañcadausthulyasvaprativikalpananatake nrtyantah. svasiddhantanayadesanayam akusalah. svacittadr.syabahyabhavalaksa-

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Rely, Put, Lack, Kind, Dance]

Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 13 of 20 nabhinivista upayadesanapatham abhinivisante, na svasiddhantanayam. catuskotikanayavisuddham . prativibhavayanti/ 50 “Furthermore, Mahamati, those childish ordinary people, who are dancing the dance of their own conceptualizations due to the sam . saric negativity of beginninglessprapañca , are unskilled in the teaching of their own philosophical system and attached to the characteristics of the external things that are [actually] their own minds presented as perceptible. As such they are attached to the teaching of means, and they do not cultivate a form of their own philosophical system that has been purified by the use of the four options” The Buddha’s response conveys a crucial message that the awareness that is not perceiving an object, which is taken as its focus, is the actual awareness because the realization—awareness is not perceiving—entails a cognition: visible objects are merely a representation of the mind, and nothing exists externally. It is because there is not the kind of external object that could be perceived, nor is there the awareness whose perceiving should rely on objects. Moreover, because there is no external object to be perceived as awareness, there is neither the awareness of objects nor the perception of awareness Buddha uses the Sophists 51 as an example to show how true awareness should be understood. On the one hand, Sophists construe the representation of the mind as an absence of external objects and, therefore, claim that the mind-only is just the non-occurrence of conceptuality. This comprehension of the representation of the mind falls into the problematics of external–internal duality and nihilism. The Sophists’ dualistic conceptualization concerns their distinction between the mind as internal and objects to be known as external The negation of external objects presupposes the existence of an internal mind, creating a dualistic conceptualization of reality. However, the true approach to mind-only should be nondual Second, the Sophists conceptualize both awareness and the object of awareness due to the lack of understanding of objects as merely mental representations presented as perceptible in the mind. This is because the Sophists fail to understand the structural relationship between external objects and the internal mind as the essential problem of dualistic mental afflictions. Their attachment to the negation of objects of awareness indicates their attachment to awareness itself. However, according to the Buddha’s answer to Mahamati’s question, both awareness and the object of awareness belong to the category of representations of mind. There are neither real nor unreal external objects to be perceived; therefore, there is neither the perception of external objects nor the perception of the occurrence of awareness. Through such a realization of the nonperception, there is even a nonperception of awareness. A realization of the structural relationship between awareness and the object of awareness contributes to the understanding of the nonperception of awareness, which is a nondual awareness. This is because, in negating the existence of the object of awareness, the existence of awareness itself, as the dualistic pair of the object, is simultaneously negated 52 The Buddha further implies the causes of the Sophist’s misunderstanding, which is the attachment to the self and its belongings and the perfuming effect fromprapañca . As a result, they mistakenly take external objects with various characteristics as mere representations of the mind and attach them to only the means of teaching Two key messages are notable, to put it briefly. First, it is important to distinguish between the Sophist’s understanding of mind-only and the real meaning of mind-only. Sophists use the term “only seeing one’s own mind” 53 ( svacittadrsyamatra ) to distinguish between the categories of “mind” and “external objects”, as well as between existence and non-existence, rather than pursuing real awareness of mental representations. They fail to understand that the representation of the mind does not concern the absence of external objects; rather, it is about the nonperception of both awareness and objects of awareness. Second, the Sophists’ claim of mind-only, which is a conceptualization process that results in nihilism and the discrimination of mind and external objects, should never be an appropriate approach to the real awareness of the representation of mind; instead,

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Element, Change, Purity, Alaya, Saha, Base, Waves, Ocean, Risky, Seven]

Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 14 of 20 Sophists’ teaching merely keeps one distant from the real and truthful mind-only, and their teaching of the mind-only is not only incorrect but even worse than teaching nothing 3.6. Relation with Consciousnesses Another important factor is how the imprints ofprapañca affect consciousness ( vijñana ) In particular, the message that follows shows how the consequences of imprints ofprapañca influence consciousness tatra khyativijñanam . mahamate acintyavasanaparinamahetukam/vastuprativikalpavijñanam . ca mahamate visayavikalpahetukam anadikalaprapañcavasanahetukam . ca// 54 “In this regard, Mahamati, consciousness of appearances has as its cause the evolution of inconceivable imprints, and the consciousness that constructs real things has as its cause the conceptualization of objects, and it also has as its cause the beginninglessprapañca -imprint” In the Buddha’s response about the divisions and nature of consciousness, 55 khyati consciousness 56 and the vastuprativikalpa consciousness 57 mutually function as cause to each other, but the two kinds of consciousness arise based on other different conditions khyativijñana refers to the first five activated consciousness, whilst the vastuprati consciousness is designated to the sixth and seventh consciousness 58 For one thing, the prose specifies the distinctions between the khyati-vijñana and vastuprativikalpa-vijñana 59 For another thing, it points out different conditions that give rise to the operation of the two types of consciousnesses. One of the factors that activate the object-discriminating consciousness (vastuprativikalpa-vijñana) in this context is the imprint of prapañca. Asprapañca happens preceded vikalpa (the conceptualization of objects), prapañca could be understood as the circumstance or mental framework that produces the distinction between subject and object anadikalavividhaprapañcadausthulyavasanavasitah. alayavijñanasam.sabdito ‘vidyavasanabh umijaih. saptabhir vijñanaih. saha mahodadhitaramgavan nityam avyucchinnasarirah. pravartate anityatadosarahita atmavadavinivrtto ‘tyantaprakrtiparisuddhah./ 60 “Influenced by the imprints of sam . saric negativities of the variegated beginningless prapañca, the so-called ¯ Alaya consciousness—which is the uninterrupted constituent element as itself, along with the other seven consciousness—which produced the imprints of ignorance, like waves arisen on the great ocean. [The constituent element itself] is free from the fault of impermanence and is devoid of the word of self, whose absolute nature is supreme purity” In this prose, the relation betweenprapañca and ¯ Alaya-vijñana is explicitly uttered, which is implied by the word “ avasita ” (influenced by) ¯ Alaya-vijñana has an absolutely pure nature that is free of self-grasping. Although if ¯ Alaya-vijñana is interrupted and immutable, the effect ofprapañca causes the sevenvijñans , which exhibit the propensity for ignorance, to emerge. It is important to emphasize that whileprapañca can activate the seven consciousnesses, which leads to ignorance, prapañca is powerless to change the pure nature of ¯ Alaya-vijñana 61 Because the writing does not demonstrate a direct connection betweenprapañca and ignorance, it would be risky to assert that the imprints aboutprapañca result in ignorance or that the imprints aboutprapañca are ignorant. The most likely interpretation here is the following: The imprints aboutprapañca effect on eight consciousnesses, but the pure nature of the ¯ Alaya-vijñana (the eighth consciousness) cannot be altered; in addition, the arising of the other seven consciousnesses, under the impacts ofprapañca , becomes the base of unknowing and leads to ignorance. Moreover, regarding the originally pure nature of ¯ Alaya-vijñana , as the prose has shown, one of the necessities to avoid the production of defilements and to maintain the pure nature of consciousness is to be free from the influence of the imprints ofprapañca This utterance evinces an insight for the realization of liberation which is about an antidote for ignorance.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Ideal, Mirage, Monks, Body, Essence, Nirvana, Few, Moon, Plays, Worth, Cloud]

Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 15 of 20 3.7. The Elimination of Prapañca As mentioned earlier, prapañca consists of negativity (as being modified by dausthulya ) and is continuously entangled with the cyclic rebirth. This sort of feature is closely associated with ignorance and suffering. In terms of the Buddhist purpose for liberation, the elimination of suffering, uprooting ignorance and the cause of ignorance are supposed to be the fundamental antidote. The conversations in La ˙nka propose some hints for the eradication ofprapañca, which concerns the ideal mental status and the antidote Buddhists are supposed to look for ye punaranye mahamate sramana va brahmana va nihsvabhavaghanalatacakragandharvanagaranutpadamayamaricyudakacandrasvapnasvabhavabahyacittadr.syavikalpanadikalaprapañcadarsanena svacittavikalpapratyayavinivrttirahitah. parikalpitabhidhanalaksyalaksanabhidheyarahita dehabhogapratisthasamalayavijñanavisayagrahyagrahakavisamyuktam. nirabhasagocaram utpadasthitibha ˙ngavarjyam . svacittotpadanugatam . vibhavayisyanti, naciratte mahamate bodhisattva mahasattvah. samsaranirvanasamataprapta bhavisyanti/ 62 “Furthermore, Mahamati, those monks and brahmans, by perceiving the beginninglessprapañc a which leads to the conceptualization of visible objects perceptible outside the mind, with [an understanding of] the nature of oneself like a dream, a moon in water, an illusory mirage, the unreal city Gandharva, a wheel of firebrand, and the cloud which have no essence, understand that such occurrences is merely one’s own mind. Without the occurrence of the conceptualization in one’s own mind, in avoidance of names, the defined and definitions, discourse and conceptualization, without the subject-object dualistic appearance in ¯ Alaya consciousness which is the store of form and body, without arising, sustaining and cessation in a sphere of no fallacious appearance (without any appearance), Oh Mahamati, they will shortly become the great beings—Bodhisattvas, accomplishing the synthesizing of sam . sara and nirvana” This discourse highlights the significant role that the elimination ofprapañca plays on the path to enlightenment. For one thing, the perception ofprapañca as a recognition of the negativity ofprapañca could lead to the avoidance of words, names, and definitions, which concerns the illusory appearance in the mind as incorrect recognition of something outside the mind. The second benefit of the elimination relates to the prevention of dualistic conceptualization, especially the subject–object duality. The subject–object duality comes along with the ¯ Alaya consciousness (not the nature of ¯ Alaya , but after being activated, there are other consciousness evolving from it). Having been free from the dualistic consciousness, there appears a sphere without fallacious appearance regarding arising, sustaining, and cessation. Indeed, we still need further exploration to determine whether there could be an underlying causal chain between the grammatical chunks. Nevertheless, it is possible to contend that the eradication ofprapañca is one of the necessities to achieve an enlightened state. Also, based on the mental defilements listed, in aspects ranging from language definition, the thinking of objects as things outside of the mind, the subject–object dualistic conceptualization, and the arising, sustaining, and cessation of appearance, it is possible that the eradication ofprapañca contributes to the elimination of defilements and the accomplishment of the ultimate enlightenment 4. Summary This paper focuses on a few key issues regarding the concept ofprapañca , including its defining characteristics, its relationship to vikalpa , its association with linguistic applications, and its connection with the mechanism. It is worth noting that the current study ofprapañca in La ˙nka clarifies its role as an innate mental affliction rooted in dualistic conceptualization, whose elimination is a necessary condition for the experience of nondual awareness and the realization of emptiness that transcends linguistic and conceptual constructions In specific, this study includes the following essential aspects: (1) Prapañca differs from vikalpa , which relates to the subject–object conceptualization process and is likely a

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 16 of 20 fundamental mechanism for mental operation; (2) it exerts significant influences on seed consciousness, which can activate other consciousness but cannot alter the pure nature of the seed; (3) prapañca is innate, which exhibits the essence of beginningless-ness and is structurally conditioned by negativities; (4) given that language is a key conceptualization tool, it may have something to do with language formation, language use, and the impact of language on consciousness The characteristics ofprapañca concern beginningless and sam . saric negativities. Nonsam . saric beings, including the enlightened Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, are devoid of birth and rebirth; therefore, the imprints ofprapañcaandprapañca itself could not affect them. The feature implies that only when one is free fromprapañca could one obtain enlightenment—a state devoid of ignorance and sufferings of sam . sara. In addition, an analysis ofprapañca ’s relation with conceptualization ( vikalpa ), subject–object duality, and mind-only ( citta-matra ) helps in approaching an ontological inquiry—“what isprapañca ?” On the one hand, prapañca not only distinguishes from conceptualization but also appears to be the cause that leads to conceptualization. It is a mechanism that shapes and reshapes the categorization and conceptualization process. However, it is noticeable that features and functions ofprapañca that have been articulated in La ˙nka are endowed with fluidity and flexibility because of the mediation of “ vasana ” (imprint/tendency). With this in mind, it is risky to pin down a single determinative definition ofprapañca without further clarification of the relationshipbetweenprapañca and vasana . Thus far, amongst the potential grammatical implications, it is reasonable to maintain thatprapañca and vasana evince a mutually reinforcing relation, simultaneously operating as the cause and result for each other, and this relationship connectsprapañca with the foundational operation of mind and consciousness. This reading unfolds the significance of the role thatprapañca plays in framing the structure of the conceptualization mechanism Another important aspect of understandingprapañca is its association with the representation of the mind. According to La ˙nka , Sophists attach to words, names and the concept of self and self-belongs, thus giving rise to the wrong view of mind-only. The Buddha’s answer indicates that, because of the perfuming ofprapañca , Sophists not only conceptualize both the awareness and the object of awareness but also simply consider the representation of the mind just as an absence of external objects. Their means of teaching via linguistics application become a hindrance to true awareness, as the language used in Sophists’ teaching of the mind-only refers to nothing but concepts without real reference Also, according to the Buddha, real awareness of the representation of the mind is a nonperception of awareness due to the absence of both awareness and the object of awareness. This emphasis on the nonperception of awareness induces a tendency to transcend “mind-only”, potentially bringing the voice of Madhyamaka with a focus on the empty nature of concepts and conceptualization and giving rise to the understanding of the lack of inherent existence for both awareness and the object or awareness Given the complexity of the language application of La ˙nka , which shows an extent of the fluidity of the meaning ofprapañca in the textual conversations, it might be necessary to further address the meaning ofprapañca by referring to other influential Buddhist treaties around the 4 th century. So far, it is undeniable that the meaning ofprapañca still shows variations. Regardless of the wide range of thesis thatprapañca might associate with, it is crucial to be aware that its coexistence with other important notions in the Yogacara system reveals the value of further clarification and illustrations Funding: This research received no external funding Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 17 of 20 Notes 1 Translated by Dr. John D. Dunne. I want to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Dunne’s generous help with the Sanskrit translations from La ˙nka in this paper and his assistance with the edition 2 The transliteration comes from the database of Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages (GRETIL), SUB Göttingen. See the webpage: https://gretilsub.uni-goettingende/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_nAgArjunamUlamadhyamakakArikA.htm (accessed on 2 June 2024) 3 Translated by Dr. John D. Dunne Prapañca was translated as conceptual structuring. Mark Siderits translated the verse as “Liberation is attained through the destruction of actions and defilements; actions and defilements arise because of falsifying conceptualizations; those arise from hypostatization; but hypostatization is extinguished in emptiness”, in whichprapañca was translated as hypostatization. Other translation choices include “proliferation”, “expansion”, “elaboration”, etc 4 According to Akira Saito’s analysis ofPrapañca in the piece “ Prapañca in the M ulamadhyamakakarika ”, he mentioned that Nagarjuna considered it as the root cause of defilements. The usage thereof in MMK reveals that prapañca represents “the mental activity of ‘conceptualization’, objects of mental activity, and the instruments of mental activity”. See ( Saito 2019 ). 5 For detailed analysis about the meaning ofpapañca in Pali canon. See ( Ñanananda 1997 , p. 5) 6 The dictionary edited by Edgerton briefly introduced the ambiguity that the termprapañca conceys, see ( Edgerton 1953 , pp. 380–81) This information can also be found in Suzuki’s An Index to the La ˙nkavatara-s utra . See ( Suzuki 2000 ). 7 Jinchuan Wan’s serial of works aboutprapañca underlines its connotation on speech act, see ( Wan 1984 ). Beier Wang brough up the usage ofprapañca in the form of imprint in conceptualization and world-making through the mediation of language, see ( Wang 2022 ). 8 Saito’s article focuses on prapañca’s meaning in the tradition of Madhyamak, but he introduced Yogacara’s interpretation and drew us attention to their silimarities and differences. See ( Saito 2019 ). 9 For more detailed discussion about this issue, please see ( Lugli 2011 , p. 137) 10 In terms of the current study of La ˙nka , a bibliographical summary by Florin Deleanu supplies detailed information about the state of scholarship on the text. Dharmaksema 曇 無 識 ’s Lengqie jing 楞 伽 經 , in four scrolls was said to have been translated in 414, which attribution and date are found in the Lidai sanbao ji 歷 代三 寶 紀 (T 49.84 b 7) by Fei Changfang 費 長 房 in 597. However, this version of translation is not survived and is widely regarded as a false attribution, according to Florin Deleanu. There are three versions of Chinese translation survived today, respectively the four volumes Lengqieabaduoluo bao jing 楞 伽 阿 跋 多 羅 寶 經 by Gunabhadra 求 那 拔 陀 羅 (394–468), the ten volume Ru Lengqie jing 入 楞 伽 經 by Bodhiruci (d. 527), and seven scroll Dasheng ru Lengqie jing 大 乘 入 楞 伽 經 by ´Siksananda 實 叉 難陀 (652–710). See ( Deleanu 2018 ). 11 Nanji o’s critical edition of Saddharmala ˙nkavatara is based on four Sanskrit manuscripts, respectively the MS in the royal Asiatic Society, London, the MS in the University Library, Cambridge, the MS in the possession of Rev E. Kawaguchi, acquired in Nepal, and the MS in the possession of J. Takakusu, acquired in Nepal. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). The information of the Sanskrit manuscript can be found in the Digital Library of University of Cambridge https://cudllib.camac.uk/view/MS-ADD-00915/1 (access on 2 Feburary 2024) 12 More detailed information about the process of editing the text can be found in ( Nanji o 1956 , p. 7) 13 The Website of Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon: http://www.dsbcprojectorg (access on 25 April 2022), and GRETIL: http: //gretilsub.uni-goettingende/gretilhtml#orgec 61346 (access on 25 April 2022). Vaidya’s edition see ( Vaidya 1963 ). 14 More details about this debate can be found in ( Lugli 2010 ). 15 Lugli’s idea about the role of La ˙nka can be found in ( Lugli 2011 , p. 2) 16 This argument and more details can be found in ( Lugli 2011 , p. 2) 17 Jacques May’s edition of Prasannapada ( Candrakirti and May 1959 ), 175 n 562: “Prapañca, litt é ralement ‘expansion’, tib. spros pa, me paraît d é signer non pas tant la fonction de pens é e discursive, correspondant, sous divers aspects, à vikalpa, vitarka, vicara, que l’op é ration de cette fonction (‘expansion’, diff é rentiation du r é el global en objets et en concepts distincts. . .), et le r é sultat de cette op é ration, c’est- à -dire le monde constitu é en objets et concepts distincts”. Translation from Birgrit Kellner: “ Prapañca , literally ‘expansion’, tib spros pa , seems to me to designate not so much the function of discursive thought, corresponding, in various aspects, to vikalpa, vitarka, vicara, as the operation of this function (‘expansion’, differentiation of the global real into distinct objects and concepts. . .), and the result of this operation, i.e., the world constituted by distinct objects and concepts”. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Birgit Kellner for providing the translation of Jacques May and Lambert Schmithausen’s interpretation 18 This analysis can be found in ( Ñanananda 1997 , p. 5) 19 This argument can be found in ( Ñanananda 1997 , p. 127) 20 Saito’s exploration sheds light on Nagarjuna’s idea aboutprapañca . See ( Saito 2019 ). 21 For more discussion about contextualist semantics, see ( Siderits 2019 ). 22 Lugli’s exploration about the meaning ofprapañca as differentiation can be found in ( Lugli 2011 , p. 143) 23 Lugli’s reading onprapañca closely associates to language application. See ( Lugli 2011 , p. 143).

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 18 of 20 24 For the discussion about the usage of prapañca in early Yogacara treatise, such as Yogacarab umi and Cintamayibh umi , see ( Wang 2022 ). 25 For more detailed discussion ofprapañca in Samdhinirmocana S utra , see ( Wang 2022 ). 26 Edgerton’s Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary provide a brief explanation regarding a general menaing of the term dausthulya , see ( Edgerton 1953 , p. 272) 27 This interpretation of vasana can be found in ( Buswell and Lopez 2013 , p. 960). For more explanation, see ( Tola and Dragonetti 2005 ). 28 The texts come from page 38 of ( Nanji o 1956 ). The yasmat sa in the Tibetan version shows as yasman na , which means “the cessation of the continuum is not [the cessation of that] from which it occurs”. However, since the previous passage are talking about another type of nirodha (cessation), it makes more sense to follow Nanji o’s reading that took it as sa instead of na 29 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , page 38, line 5 to 8. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 30 See footnote 39. According to Baosheng Huang, Khyativijñana is designated to the seed consciousness in La ˙nka’s discourse, while the vastuprativikalpa refers to the pravrtti consciousness, which the six consciousness(es) that are generated from the base consciousness 31 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , page 71, line 9 to 14. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 32 abhinive ˙ sat . The ablative case in Sanskrit could be used to indicate reason and source 33 The relationship between vasana (imprint) andprapañca will be addressed in the following section. The most possible relationship could be indicated by “of” in translation 34 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , page 86, line 3 to 5. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 35 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , page 86, line 10 to 13. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 36 The original word is nihsvabhavaghanalatacakragandharvanagaranutpadamayamaricyudakacandrasvapnasvabhavabahyacitta-dr.syavikalpanadikalaprapañcadarsanena . The compound could be segmented into nihsvabha-vaghana-alatacakra-gandharvanagaraanutpadamayamarici-udakacandra-svapna-svabhava-bahya-citta-dr.sya-vikalpa-anadikala-prapañca-darsanena Since constituents before bahya could be separated as some instances to explain their lack of essence, and the darsana at the end participate in the sentence level meaning “perceive”, the morphologically related constituents in this compounds left for prapañca is bahya-citta-dr.sya-vikalpaanadikala-prapañca Therefore, merely this part was included in the table 37 One of the compounds is asadbh utavikalpaprapañca Likewise, asadbh utaandvikalpaprapañca could be firstly separate as two trunks, andvikalpaprapañca is the most relevant part; thus it was counted 36 The original word is nihsvabhavaghanalatacakragandharvanagaranutpadamayamaricyudakacandrasvapnasvabhavabahyacitta-dr.syavikalpanadikalaprapañcadarsanena . The compound could be segmented into nihsvabha-vaghana-alatacakra-gandharvanagaraanutpadamayamarici-udakacandra-svapna-svabhava-bahya-citta-dr.sya-vikalpa-anadikala-prapañca-darsanena Since constituents before bahya could be separated as some instances to explain their lack of essence, and the darsana at the end participate in the sentence level meaning “perceive”, the morphologically related constituents in this compounds left for prapañca is bahya-citta-dr.sya-vikalpaanadikala-prapañca Therefore, merely this part was included in the table 37 One of the compounds is asadbh utavikalpaprapañca Likewise, asadbh utaandvikalpaprapañca could be firstly separate as two trunks, andvikalpaprapañca is the most relevant part; thus it was counted 38 For more thorough dicussion about the meaning of anadi (beginningless), see ( Dunne 2011 ). 39 Deshpante, Samskr , tasubodhini: A Sanskrit Primer , 267 40 de’i phyir thog ma med pa’i dus kyi spros pa’i gnas ngan len gyi bag chags rnam pa mang pos bsgos pa kun gzhi rnam . From Jnanasribhadra ‘ Phags pa lang kar gshegs pai grel pa ’. In bsTangyur (sde dge), edited by Zhu chen tshul khrims rin chen, 121:4–525. Delhi: Delhi Karmapae Choedhey, Gyalwae Sungrab Partun Khang, 1982–1985. Accessed 28 February 2023 http://purlbdrc.io/resource/ MW 23703_4018 . [BDRC bdr: MW 23703_4018] 41 For this reading, see ( Lugli 2011 , p. 127) 42 In other words, according to Sanskrit grammar, it is a Karmadharaya compound. See ( Deshpande 2014 , p. 267) 43 Vaman Shivaram Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary , 1419–1420 √ vas means ‘to perfume’ vasana is a vas-lyut , meaning vasana derives from vas with a krt affix, indicating a sense of verbal activity of perfuming 44 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , page 90, line 13 to 15. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 45 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , page 90, line 15 to 17. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 46 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , page 186, line 8 to 9. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). Barclay underlines the significance of the language issue that has been expanded in La ˙nka. According to Barclay, La ˙nka “sees the use of words in the form of discourse as a practical tool to direct the reader toward an experience to which the application of words is impossible, the internal realization of the truth The sutra seeks to use words as a lever to detach individuals from attachment to the world by meeting certain problems in the minds of its ignorant readers and to destroy erroneous views which block realization. It seeks to drive the reader to the level on which he may become conversant with meaning rather than words”. See ( Barclay 1975 ).

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Religions 2024 , 15 , 795 19 of 20 47 Nanji o’s edition prints asjñaye , see Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , 170. According to the previous discussion, it makes more sense to consider it was a typo jñeye , meaning the object of knowledge in locative case, grammatically aligns with the following passage 48 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra, page 169, line 4 to 17, and page 170, line 1 to 2. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 49 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra, page 170, line 7 to 17, and page 171, line 1 to 2. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 50 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , page 171, line 10 to 14. See ( Nanji o 1956 ). 51 The word “Sophist” was translated from tarkika . This translation aims to maintain the connotation of Buddhist attitude towards non-Buddhists 52 The Buddha’s message about awareness as non-awareness, or knowledge as non-knowledge, can be further explored from philosophical perspectives. The passages here attempt to reveal true nondual awareness through negation. This approach demonstrates an effort to use linguistic discussion to evoke non-linguistic experience and to use conceptual mind to reveal the experience of non-dualistic awareness that transcendsprapañca and subject–object duality 53 See ( Suzuki [1932] 1991 , vol. 40, p. 147) 54 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , 37, line 18 to 19, and 38, line 1 to 2 55 According to what Buddha has expressed about the division of consciousness, there are three categories, and in details there are eight categories. The passage here refers to the latter two type of consciousness in three-category division. Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , 37 56 Suzuki translated khyati-vijñana as perceiving consciousness. See ( Suzuki [1932] 1991 , vol. 40, p. 34) 57 Suzuki translated vastuprativikalpa-vijñana as object-discriminating consciousness. See ( Suzuki [1932] 1991 , vol. 40, p. 34) 58 Huang Baosheng thinks akhyativijñana ( 显 现 识 xianxian shi ) refers to ¯ Alaya-vijñana which in contrast to the second type of consciousness— vastuvikalpa-vijñana ( 分别 事 物 识 fenbie shiwu shi ). Also, according to him, the usage of akhyasyati , a future form from akhya meaning ‘will explain’, in the previous passages does not make sense. However, based on the context, despite the variated application of akhya , it is still clear that it refers to the perceiving consciousness. See ( Huang 2011 , vol. 9, p. 85) 59 Since the khyati in this text is still different from akhyati , it is risky to simply regard the khyativijñana as ¯ Alaya-vijñana . Thus, I adopt perceiving-consciousness and object-discriminating consciousness to address the division 60 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , 220, line 13 to 16, and 221, line 1 61 It noticeable that the ‘ prapañca ’ and ‘ avidya (ignorance)’ are both followed by ‘ vasana ’, meaning imprints or tendency carries the operation of prapañca and avidya. However, more research needs to be done about the application and the meaning of vasana 62 Nanji o, The La ˙nkavatara S utra , 41, line 16, and 42, line 1 to 8 References Barclay, Winston F. 1975. On Words and Meaning: The Attitude Toward Discourse in the Lankavatara S utra Numen 22: 70–79 Buswell, Robert E., and Donald S. Lopez, Jr. 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism . Princeton: Princeton University Press Candrakirti, ¯ Achayra, and Jacques May. 1959 Candrakirti Prasannapada Madhyamakavrtti . Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve Deleanu, Florin. 2018. 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