A Study of the Early-Stage Translations of Foxing佛性 in Chinese...

[Full title: A Study of the Early-Stage Translations of Foxing佛性 in Chinese Buddhism: The Da Banniepan Jing大般涅槃經 Trans. Dharmakṣema and the Da Fangdeng Rulaizang Jing大方等如來藏經 Trans. Buddhabhadra]

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Citation: Li, Zijie. 2022. A Study of the Early-Stage Translations of Foxing 佛 性 in Chinese Buddhism: The Da Banniepan Jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 Trans. Dharmaksema and the Da Fangdeng Rulaizang Jing 大 方 等 如 來 藏 經 Trans. Buddhabhadra Religions 13: 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/ rel 13070619 Academic Editor: Roy C. Amore Received: 6 June 2022 Accepted: 1 July 2022 Published: 4 July 2022 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Copyright: © 2022 by the author Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommonsorg/licenses/by/ 4.0/) religions Article A Study of the Early-Stage Translations of Foxing 佛 性 in Chinese Buddhism: The Da Banniepan Jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 Trans. Dharmaksema and the Da Fangdeng Rulaizang Jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 Trans. Buddhabhadra Zijie Li History School, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China; rblslzj@hotmailcom Abstract: The Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 (Skt Tathagatagarbha-s utra ), translated by Buddhabhadra 佛 陀 跋 陀 羅 (358–429) is one of the early Chinese Buddhist canon texts where the term foxing 佛 性 (Jp bussho ; Buddha-nature) is clearly used to express Buddha-nature. However, the term foxing cannot be confirmed in other extant translations of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra . Another early text in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 (Skt Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra ), translated by Dharmaksema 曇 無 讖 (385?–433), also used the term foxing , which cannot be correspondingly confirmed in the surviving Sanskrit fragments of this scripture. Some significant differences in foxing between the Sanskrit fragments and Dharmaksema’s translation of this sutra belong to the first twelve fascicles of Dharmaksema’s translation completed under his collaborators’ support when he had not mastered the Chinese language. It is very likely that Faxian 法 顯 (337–422) translated a version of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra that featured buddhadhatu as foxing . Buddhabhadra, in the same period, translated a version of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra , in which he favoured the term foxing over a literal translation of the Sanskrit. As another contemporary monk with these two, Dharmaksema translated the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , going further than Faxian by using the term foxing regularly. These texts influenced the Dilun monastic tradition 地 論 宗 . Among these, the term foxing and its Sinicism explanations played the most significant role, influencing the whole of the Chinese and even East Asian Buddhist thought Keywords: foxing ; Da banniepan jing ; Da fangdeng rulaizang jing ; Dharmaksema; Buddhabhadra 1. Introduction In recent years, discussions in Buddhist scholarship have focused on the concept of “Buddha-nature” within all sentient beings, whether or not this concept is compatible with classical Buddhist teachings such as no-abiding-self or even those doctrines rooted in the Nikayas/ ¯ Agamas. This controversy is not only relevant to East Asian Buddhism but also to the roots of this tradition in the Indian Mahayana sutras, which deploy the concept of tathagatagarbha (Buddha-embryo or Buddha-womb) 1 Moreover, in some cases, the term tathagatagarbha is also used to describe sentient beings themselves (Skt sarvasattvas tathagatagarbhah ; all sentient beings are those who contain tathagata ). As is widely known, in the history of East Asian Buddhism, tathagatagarbha (Chin rulaizang 如 來 藏 ) was sometimes considered a synonym of foxing 佛 性 (Jp bussho ; Buddha-nature) 2 The relationship between these two terms was ambiguous in Chinese Buddhism because some monks and schools, such as the Nirvana tradition (Chin Niepan zong 涅 槃 宗 ), declared that foxing is the same as rulaizang 3 Therefore, probing the early cases where the classical Chinese term foxing appeared in China is significant to clarifying the origin and development of these two concepts in East Asian Buddhism Two of the early translators who translated some terms as foxing were Buddhabhadra 佛 陀 跋 陀 羅 (358–429) and Dharmaksema 曇 無 讖 (385?–433). Both of them worked on their Religions 2022 , 13 , 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel 13070619 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 2 of 25 texts in China in the first half of the fifth century 4 In this article, I investigate this issue based on the translations by Dharmaksema and Buddhabhadra. In other words, cases of the term foxing that appeared during the Northern Liang 北 涼 dynasty (397–439) and the second half of the Eastern Jin 東 晉 (317–420) are the objects of this research 5 Among these two dynasties, the Northern Liang is much more important for my discussion because the full text of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra [the Great Nirvana S utra] was completely translated into classical Chinese and spread to the whole of China after this period 6 There is hardly research discussing both the translations of Dharmaksema and Buddhabhadra to probe the origin of the term foxing as a Chinese term and its context in Chinese translation in the early fifth century, especially the lack of comparison with relevant Sanskrit fragments in the context of Chinese Buddhism remains, although it is evident that in Indian Buddhist texts, buddhadhatu indicates Buddha-nature, which has the meaning “nature of a buddha.” 7 The scholars in Indian and Tibetan Buddhist Studies did not pay attention to this issue in the context of East Asian Buddhism. Conversely, many scholars in Chinese Buddhist Studies have hardly used the relevant Sanskrit and Tibetan texts to investigate the origin and development of the term foxing 8 In a sense, this is also one of the purposes of this article Through this study, we can presume that Faxian 法 顯 (337–422) translated a version of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra that featured buddhadhatu as foxing . Buddhabhadra, in the same period, translated a version of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra , in which he favoured the term foxing over a literal translation of the Sanskrit, maybe a particular Sanskrit expression, or supplying foxing in place of diverse Sanskrit phrasings. As another contemporary monk with these two, Dharmaksema translated the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , going further than Faxian by using the term foxing regularly 2. Dharmaksema, Buddhabhadra and Chinese Buddhism at the Beginning of the Fifth Century Unfortunately, most of the Buddhist literature produced during the Northern Liang dynasty has been lost. Only some quotes can thus be found from later treatises such as the Da banniepan jing shu 大 般 涅 槃 經 疏 [Commentary on the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra ], written by Guanding 灌 頂 (561–632). In 421, it was recorded that Dharmaksema held a Sanskrit text in hand and spoke Chinese to Daolang 道 朗 (?–?) when he translated the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra in 421. Daolang was one of the most accomplished monks in Hexi 河 西 area at that time and was guided by Dharmaksema in Guzang 姑 臧 while receiving tuition from Dharmaksema. According to the Chu sanzang ji ji 出三 藏 記 集 [Compilation of Notes on the Translation of the Tripitaka; or Collected Records concerning the Translation of the Tripitaka], 11 texts were regarded as Dharmaksema’s translations, as follows 9 Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 [the Great Nirvana S utra], 36 juan , T 374 Fangdeng daji jing 方 等 大 集 經 [the S utra of the Vaipulya Great Assembly], 29 juan or 30 juan , T 397 Fangdengwang xukongzang jing 方 等 王 虚空 藏 經 [the S utra of the King of Vaipulya and the Chamber of Space], 5 juan Fangdeng dayun jing 方 等 大 雲 經 [Skt Mahameghas utra ; the S utra of the Vaipulya Great Cloud], 4 juan (or Fangdeng wuxiang dayun jing 方 等 無 想 大 雲 經 , 6 juan ), T 387 Beihua jing 悲 華 經 [the S utra of Flower with Compassion], 10 juan , T 157 Jinguangming jing 金 光 明 經 [the Golden Light S utra], 4 juan , T 663 Hailongwang jing 海 龍 王 經 [the S utra of the King of Marine Dragons], 4 juan , T 598 Pusa dichi jing 菩 薩 地 持 經 [the S utra of Stages of Bodhisattvas], 8 juan , T 1581 Pusajie ben 菩 薩 戒 本 [the Text on Precepts of Bodhisattvas], 1 juan (also regarded as a text translated in Dunhuang 燉煌 ), T 1500.

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 3 of 25 Youposai jie 優 婆 塞 戒 [Upasaka’s Precepts], 7 juan , T 1488 Pusajie jing 菩 薩 戒 經 [the S utra of Precepts of Bodhisattvas], 8 juan Pusajie youpo jietan wen 菩 薩 戒 優 婆 戒 壇 文 [the Treatise on Precepts of Bodhisattvas and Upasakas], 1 juan These eleven texts totally have 104 juan . In the dynasty of An emperor of Jin 晋 安 帝 , Indian monk Tanmochen 曇 摩 讖 10 (or Tanwuchen 曇 無 讖 ) came to Western Liang prefecture 西 涼 州 and translated these texts under the support of Juqumengxun 沮 渠 蒙 遜 Dharmaksema moved to Guzang 姑 臧 and translated these texts after 417. In the Chu sanzang ji ji , the Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 [the Great Nirvana S utra] and the Fangdeng daji jing 方 等 大 集 經 [the S utra of the Vaipulya Great Assembly] are mentioned. Among these, the most influential text in China is the Da banniepan jing 11 According to Fuse K ogaku 布 施 浩 岳 , if the first ten fascicles of the Da banniepan jing are compared with the Nihuan jing 泥 洹 經 [the Nirvana S utra], which is a short Chinese translation, or originally a short version, of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra translated by Faxian 法 顯 (337–422) several years before the Da banniepan jing and has six fascicles ( Foshuo dabannihuan jing 佛 說 大 般 泥 洹 經 , T 376), it is evident that the Da banniepan jing contains most of the content and information that is found in the Nihuan jing , although it is possible that they are based on different versions/recensions of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra Accordingly, following the completion of the Da banniepan jing ’s translation, fewer and fewer Chinese readers read the Nihuan jing 12 This is a foundation of understanding the relationship between the Da banniepan jing and the Nihuan jing in Chinese Buddhism Moreover, as it is well known, the southern text of the Da banniepan jing , containing thirty-six fascicles, was not a direct translation but an edited version based on the Nihuan jing translated by Faxian and the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema. Faxian returned to China from India and launched his translation work after 410 13 It almost overlapped with the date of the translation of the Da banniepan jing . Faxian cooperated with Buddhabhadra and finished the translation of the Nihuan jing in 416 14 I will, therefore, ignore the southern text of the Da banniepan jing in this article. However, regarding the Nihuan jing , there will be a discussion of the Nihuan jing ’s attitude to foxing , the purpose of my research, later in this article, since it is important for the study of what Dharmaksema likely read 15 The original content of the Nihuan jing equates to the first ten fascicles of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema, which contains forty fascicles in total. After completing the first twelve fascicles of the translation of the Da banniepan jing , Dharmaksema noted that the original Sanskrit text of the Da banniepan jing was not enough in China then; thus, he returned to India to seek an integrated version of this sutra. He arrived at Khotan 于 闐 by traveling through the southern path of Tianshan 天 山 and found the middle and later fascicles of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra 16 Concerning the Sanskrit text, Takasaki Jikid o 高崎 直 道 mentioned partial fragments of this text 17 Almost simultaneously, Matsuda Kazunobu 松 田 和 信 collected and translated all existing fragments 18 , and Habata Hiromi 幅 田 裕 美 used the previous research by Takasaki and Matsuda and provided a critical edition of the Tibetan text 19 , followed by a published monograph on all extant Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra 20 ¯ Ono H od o 大 野 法 道 thinks the preface (Chin jingxu 經 序 ) by Hexi Daolang 河 西 道 朗 is more reliable. According to this account, Dharmaksema first came to Dunhuang 燉煌 with a variety of scriptures, and then moved to the Northern Liang 北 涼 , where he translated the first ten juan of the Da banniepan jing , finishing in 421. He further states that it is certain that the source text for the remaining thirty juan incorporated into Dharmaksema’s the Da banniepan jing came from Khotan 21 According to ¯ Och o Enichi 横 超 慧 日 , conceiving that the same person or group translated at the same time all forty fascicles of the Da banniepan jing is difficult. Instead, they may have been edited by different people over several stages 22

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 4 of 25 In other words, some fascicles or sections of the forty-fascicle Da banniepan jing were not translated by Dharmaksema. Feng Chengjun 馮 承 鈞 states that Dharmaksema used the Sanskrit text collected by Zhimeng 智 猛 (?–452), who did not engage in translating 23 In contrast, Chen Jinhua 陳 金 華 objects to Feng’s conclusion. Chen asserts that Zhimeng not only brought the Sanskrit text of the Da banniepan jing to China but also participated in the translation 24 Hence, it is very likely that the translators of the Da banniepan jing were not only Dharmaksema but included other people or groups, in addition to even some other materials or sources 25 Therefore, I intend to discuss the classical Chinese term foxing based on the Da banniepan jing attributed to Dharmaksema in the framework of Chinese Buddhism. In addition, as a background to contemporary translation in China, the term foxing as found in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 [The Sutra of the Tathagatagarbha] translated by Buddhabhadra 佛 陀 跋 陀 羅 (358–429) is also the object of my discussion. In other words, as these two texts were translated into classical Chinese during almost the same and early period, I will talk of the use of the term foxing found in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing at first and then move to the discussion on this topic in the Da banniepan jing 26 Finally, this study also slightly mentions the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing 大 方 等 無 想 經 [Skt Mahameghas utra ; T 387] by Dharmaksema and the renderings by Gunabhadra 求 那 跋 陀 羅 (394–468) from roughly the same time According to the Fozu tongji 佛 祖 統 紀 [Entire Records of the Buddhas and the Ancestors], both Dharmaksema and Buddhabhadra were engaged in the translation works in China during almost the same era In the fourth year of Yixi 義 熙 , Huiyuan 慧 遠 was discontented with the uncompleted translations in Chinese Buddhism, the lack of meditation, and the incomplete canons of precept. He sent his disciples such as Zhifaling 支 法 領 to India to collect more Sanskrit Buddhist texts. They met Buddhabhadra in India and asked him to return to China together. In the eighth year of Yixi, Dharmaksema moved to Guzang 姑 臧 . Juqu Mengxun 沮 渠 蒙 遜 , the King of the Northern Liang, asked Dharmaksema to stay there and translate the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra into the Da banniepan jing , which has forty fascicles. In the ninth year of Yixi, Buddhabhadra (Chin. Juexian 覺 賢 ), a monk from the Kapilavastu area, went to Lushan 廬 山 mountain and stayed there. Huiyuan asked Buddhabhadra to translate some texts of meditation 義 熙 四 年 ， 遠 法 師 以 江 東 經 卷 未 備 ， 禪 法 無 聞 ， 律 藏 殘 缺 。 乃 令 弟 子支 法 領 等 往 天 竺 ， 尋 訪 獲 梵 本 。 於 于 闐 遇 佛 陀 跋 陀 羅 ， 乃 要 與 東 還 。 . . 八年 ， 曇 無 讖 至 姑 臧 ， 涼 王 沮 渠 蒙 遜 留 之 譯 《 大 般 涅 槃 經 》 四十 卷 。 . . 九 年 ， 迦維衛 國 沙 門 佛 陀 跋 陀 羅 （ 此 雲 覺 賢 ） 至 廬 山 入 社 ， 遠 法 師 請 譯 禪 數 諸 經 。 27 That is to say, Huiyuan’s 慧 遠 (334–416) disciples met Buddhabhadra in about 408 In 412, Dharmaksema launched the translation of the Da banniepan jing in the Northern Liang. In 413, Buddhabhadra had met Kumarajiva 鳩 摩羅 什 (344–413) in China and moved to Lushan Mountain to continue his translation works. Evidently, the periods of Dharmaksema and Buddhabhadra acting in China overlapped. Therefore, in my opinion, it is very likely that they had similar circumstances from 410, such as mutual assistants in China and the same Chinese texts that had been translated 28 On the contrary, to say the least of it, even if these two translators did not actually share many assistants and they did not directly influence each other, we cannot deny that they were engaged in the translation works in China during the same era, a very early period for the appearance of the term foxing . For this reason, it is inevitable to discuss not only Dharmaksema’s translations but also those by some other translators, such as Buddhabhadra, at the beginning of the fifth century 29 As has been mentioned above, there is hardly any research discussing both the translations of Dharmaksema and Buddhabhadra to probe the origin of the term foxing as a Chinese term and its context in Chinese translation in the early fifth century, especially the

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 5 of 25 lack of comparison with relevant Sanskrit fragments in the context of Chinese Buddhism remains. This is also one of the purposes of this article 3. Foxing 佛 性 in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 (Skt. Tath agatagarbha-s utra ) Translated by Buddhabhadra One of the earliest Buddhist texts discussing tathagatagarbha is the Tathagatagarbhas utra . The Tathagatagarbha-s utra , a seminal text of tathagatagarbha doctrine, describes how tathagatagarbha accounts for the possibility of transformation from a state of delusion to a state of enlightenment by uncovering the inherently pure nature within, referred to containing, store or “that which sentient beings possess.” 30 Two recensions of the Tathagatagarbha-sutra are extant in Chinese: the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 ( T vol. 16, no. 666), translated by Buddhabhadra 佛 陀 跋 陀 羅 (358–429) in the Eastern Jin 東 晉 (317–420), 31 and the Da fangguang rulaizang jing 大 方 廣 如 來 藏 經 ( T vol. 16, no. 667), translated by Amoghavajra (or Bukong) 不 空 (705–774) under the Tang 唐 (618–907). 32 While the original Sanskrit sutra is not extant for comparison, the bKa’ ’gyur canon represents Tibetan recensions; 33 one of them is titled Phags pa de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po shes bya ba thegs pa chen po’i mdo , translated by ´Sakyaprabha and Ye-ses-sde (photographic print Tibetan Buddhist Canon 36, 240.1~245.5) 34 The Tathagatagarbha-s utra is a relatively short scripture that represents the point of a number of works in Indian Buddhism concentrating on the idea that all sentient beings are tathagatagarbha . According to Michael Zimmermann, the hitherto accepted assumption that the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing reflects an Indian transmission, which has not undergone the textual alterations of later centuries, is only partly true because the source of the citations in the Ratnagotravibhaga [Chin Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun 究 竟 一 乘 寶 性 論 ; Treatise of the Jewel-nature of Ultimate Single Vehicle], a ´sastra which was written at least fifty years before Buddhabhadra translated Tathagatagarbha-s utra into the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing , has turned out to be the recension represented in the Tibetan tradition 35 I agree with this view. That is to say, although it is possible that there are some differences between the underlying Sanskrit text of the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing and that of the Tibetan translation, we should not consider that the original Sanskrit text of the extant Tibetan translation had been substantially amended compared with that of the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing . Thus, in my opinion, it is still effective to investigate the unique way and purpose of Buddhabhadra through comparing his translation with the Tibetan text, especially about the Chinese term foxing , which appears only in Buddhabhadra’s translation As mentioned above, the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing translated by Buddhabhadra is a text early in the known literary history of the term foxing . At the beginning of this chapter, the following paragraph must be discussed prior to others In the same way, sons of good family, I see with my buddha-vision that all sentient beings, within the afflictions of desire, hostility and delusion, possess the knowledge, vision and body of a tathagata sitting cross-legged, dignified and motionless. Sons of good family, all sentient beings, although situated in many kinds of rebirth, in the midst of their afflictions possess the tathagatagarbha , always permanent and undefiled, replete with excellent characteristics no different to my own. Sons of good family, for example, it is like this, a person with divine-vision/eye (Skt divyacaksus ; Chin tianyan 天 眼 ) inspects calyxes and find that the tathagata -body within the flowers can be revealed if the drooped petals had been moved away. In the same way, sons of good family, the Buddha, seeing all sentient beings to already be tathagatagarbha , desiring to cause this to be revealed, explains the dharma, destroying their defilements and manifesting their buddha-nature. Sons of good family, the true nature (Skt dharmata ; Chin faer 法 爾 ) of all buddhas is this: whether or not buddhas appear in the world, in all living beings the store [or womb] of a tathagata is at all times present without change 如 是 善 男 子 ！ 我 以 佛 眼 觀 一 切 眾 生 ， 貪 欲 恚 癡 諸 煩 惱 中 ， 有 如 來 智 、 如 來 眼 、 如 來 身 ， 結 加 趺 坐 儼 然 不 動 。 善 男 子 ！ 一 切 眾 生 雖 在 諸 趣 ， 煩 惱 身 中 有 如 來 藏 ， 常

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Moha, Element, Law, Just, Par, Save, Ston, Day, Raga, Bud, Dag, Dus, Lotus, Anger, Kyi, Rig, Guide, Energy, Sro, Sit, Dang, Bar, Rather, Yan, Yang, Shi, Peel, Look]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 6 of 25 無 染 污 、 德 相 備 足 ， 如 我 無 異 。 又 善 男 子 ！ 譬 如 天 眼 之 人 觀 未 敷 花 ， 見 諸 花 內 有 如 來 身 結 加 趺 坐 ， 除 去 萎花 便 得 顯 現 。 如 是 善 男 子 ！ 佛 見 眾 生 如 來 藏 已 ， 欲 令 開 敷 為 說 經 法 ， 除 滅 煩 惱 顯 現 佛 性 。 善 男 子 ！ 諸 佛 法 爾 ， 若 佛 出 世 若 不 出 世 ， 一 切 眾 生 如 來 之 藏 常 住 不 變 。 36 [Tibetan translation] In the same way, sons of good family, also the Tathagata, the Honorable One and Perfectly Awakened One, [perceives] with his insight (prajña) , knowledge (jñana) and tathagata-vision that all the various sentient beings are encased in myriads of defilements, [such as] desire ( raga ), anger ( dvesa ), misguidedness (moha) , longing (trsna) and ignorance (avidya) . And, sons of good family, [he] perceives that inside sentient beings encased in defilements sit many tathagatas, cross-legged and motionless, endowed like myself with a [tathagata’s] knowledge and vision. And [the Tathagata], having perceived inside those [sentient beings] defiled by all defilements the true nature of a tathagata ( tathagatadharmata ) motionless and unaffected by any of the states of existence, then says: “Those tathagatas are just like me!” Sons of good family, in this way a tathagata’s vision is admirable, [because] with it [he] perceives that all sentient beings contain a tathagata ( tathagatagarbha ). “Sons of good family, it is like the example of a person endowed with divine vision [who] would [use this] divine vision to look at such unsightly and putrid lotuses, not blooming and not open, and would [owing to his vision] recognise that there are tathagatas sitting cross-legged in their center, in the calyx of [each] lotus, and [knowing that, he] would then desire to look at the forms of the tathagatas; [he would] then peel away and remove the unsightly, putrid and disgusting lotus petals in order to thoroughly clean the forms of the tathagatas. In the same way, sons of good family, with the vision of a buddha, the Tathagata also perceives that all sentient beings contain a tathagata (tathagatagarbha) , and [therefore] teaches the Dharma [to them] in order to peel away the sheaths of those sentient beings [encased in such] defilements [as] desire, anger, misguidedness, longing and ignorance. And after [those sentient beings] have realized the [Dharma, their] tathagatas [inside] are established in the perfection [of the tathagatas] ( ma rig pa’i nyon mongs pa’i sbubs dbye ba’i phyir chos ston te/de sgrub pa’i de bzhin gshegs pa rnams ni yang dag pa nyid du gnas so ).” Sons of good family, the essential law ( dharmata ) of the dharmas is this 37 : whether or not tathagatas appear in the world, all these sentient beings at all times contain a tathagata ( tathagatagarbha ) 38 It is notable that in the Tibetan translation, there is a sentence stating “ de bzhin gshegs pa rnas ni yan dag pa nyid du gnas so ,” rather than the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing stating “ xianxian foxing 顯 現 佛 性 (manifesting Buddha-nature).” In other words, in the Tibetan translation, it is difficult to identify the term corresponding to foxing in this paragraph, while it is very possible that this Tibetan translation is not translating the same Indic text as Buddhabhadra A similar example can also be found in the following passage. They [women] do not know it. Therefore, the Tathagata teaches widely the Dharma for living beings saying: “Sons of good family, do not denigrate yourself! In your own body, you all have the buddha-nature. If you practice diligently and diminish all evil, then you will attain the designations ‘bodhisattva’ and ‘exalted one.’ You will guide and save innumerable living beings!” 如 彼 女人 而 不 覺 知 ， 是 故 如 來 普 為 說 法 ， 言 ： 善 男 子 ！ 莫 自 輕 鄙 ， 汝等 自 身 皆 有 佛 性 ， 若 勤 精進 滅 眾 過 惡 ， 則 受 菩 薩 及 世 尊 號 ， 化 導 濟 度 無 量 眾 生 。 39 [Tibetan translation] Then, though the element of a tathagata has entered into sentient beings and is present within, those sentient beings do not realize [it]. Sons of good family, in order that sentient beings do not despise themselves, the Tathagata in this [connection] teaches the Dharma with the [following] words: “Sons of good family, apply energy without giving in to despondency! It will happen that one day the tathagata [who has] entered [and] is present within you will become manifest. ( rig kyi bud ag khyed bdag nyid sro shi bar ma byed par khyed brtson ’grus brtan par gyis shig dang/khyed la de bzhin gshegs pa zhugs pa yod pa dus shig na ’byung bar ’gyur te ) Then you will be designated “bodhisattva,” rather than

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Creation, Bur, Teach, Long, Rang, Surprise, Seem, Sang, Kham, Next, Fixed, Proper, Thabs]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 7 of 25 “[ordinary] sentient being ( sattva ).” [And] again in the [next stage you] will be designated “buddha,” rather than “bodhisattva”.” 40 Here, Buddhabhadra translated “ rudeng zishen jie you foxing 汝等 自 身 皆 有 佛 性 (you all have Buddha-nature),” compared to the statement, “it will happen that one day the Tathagata who has entered and is present within you will become manifest. Then you will be designated a bodhisattva, rather than ordinary sentient being ( sattva )” in the Tibetan translation. We can only find tathagata and sattva in the Tibetan translation, rather than a proper term matching the Chinese term foxing Similarly, the following passage is also typical of the difference between these two translations In the same way, with the vision of a Sugata (buddha) I can see that although living beings are covered over by defilements, their tathagata -nature is indestructible. I teach the Dharma with appropriate means in order to let living beings attain buddhahood. Because their buddha-nature has been covered by defilements, I intend to remove the defilements to make their buddha-nature purified rapidly 善逝 眼 如 是 ， 觀 諸 眾 生 類 ， 煩 惱 淤 泥中 ， 如 來 性 不 壞 。 隨 應 而 說 法 ， 令 辦 一 切 事 ， 佛 性 煩 惱 覆 ， 速 除 令 清 淨 。 41 [Tibetan translation] In the same way I can see that also all sentient beings have for a long time been constantly overpowered by defilements, but knowing that their defilements [are only] accidental ( agantuka ), [I] teach the Dharma with [appropriate] means in order to purify [their] intrinsic nature ( prakrti ). ( de dag gi nib lo bur nyon mongs shes/rang bzhin sbyang phyir thabs kyis chos ston to ) 42 The term foxing 佛 性 appears in Buddhabhadra’s translation again. If we check the Tibetan translation, the corresponding term for the Tibetan is likely to be “ prakrti (intrinsic nature).” There does not seem to be a term corresponding to at least the Chinese character fo 佛 43 In particular, among Chinese renderings of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra , the classical Chinese term foxing can only be found in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing , which was translated by Buddhabhadra. It is difficult to accurately confirm the relevant term for foxing or corresponding Tibetan terms, such as sangs rgyas kyi khams/dbyings , in both Amoghavajra’s classical Chinese and the Tibetan translation. Similarly, as mentioned above, there are various terms related to the Chinese term rulaizang in the Tibetan translation, rather than a fixed term As is argued by Zimmermann ( 2002 ) and some other scholars, since it seems that Buddhabhadra has translated a different recension of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra , the fact that its content is different should not surprise us. I also concur with this opinion. The reason for discussing the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing by Buddhabhadra here is to reconsider the importance of this rendering for the history of the term foxing and Buddha-nature thought in Chinese Buddhism—that is, either the different Sanskrit recension of the Tathagatagarbhas utra , which was read and used by Buddhabhadra, or Buddhabhadra’s own creation influenced Chinese Buddhist thought at an early stage. This point was, to my knowledge, seldom emphasized by scholars in East Asian Buddhist studies To summarize, although a lack of clarity about Buddhabhadra’s reasoning and motivation remains, as an early classical Chinese Buddhist canon text, the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing used the term foxing , which cannot be confirmed in other extant translations of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra .

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Cad, Shila, Wisdom, Kazuo, Better, Mod, Sila, Chung, Masahiro, Tam, Atman, Ana, Gyi, Basic, Mah, Sat, Ngan, Kamala, Rab, Nge, Shorter, Shas, Ting, Case, Mya, Che, Small, Nyan, Ste, Focus]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 8 of 25 4. Foxing 佛 性 in the Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 (Skt. Mah aparinirv ana-mahasutra ) Translated by Dharmaksema The universality of emptiness ( s unyata ) and the doctrines of no-abiding-self ( anatman ) and impermanence ( anitya ) are some basic Buddhist teachings. Conversely, one still finds texts such as the ´Srimaladevi-sutra and the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra that use terms such as atman 44 This is, in a sense, one of the most basic issues in Buddhist Studies 45 This section focusses on which term the translators used to express the meaning such as atman in the Chinese translation of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra Before discussing Dharmaksema’s translation, Faxian’s rendering should be mentioned first. Faxian’s version seems to be a short Chinese translation of the Mahaparinirvanamahas utra if we merely read the Chinese translations, but it is better understood to be a Chinese translation of a shorter version of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . Following Habata, the term sangs rgyas kyi khams , which is a translation of buddhadhatu in the Tibetan rendering, is found 23 times in the Tibetan version of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . This number is relatively small because we find many instances of foxing in the Chinese translations. Among these 23 references, Dharmaksema translates 17 instances of foxing , compared to only 8 of foxing in Faxian’s rendering. Moreover, there is no example where Faxian translates sangs rgyas kyi khams as foxing but Dharmaksema does not. 46 For this reason, I will focus on Dharmaksema’s rendering in this section Takasaki Jikid o notes that the underlying term of the foxing in the Da banniepan jing , translated by Dharmaksema, refers to the nature of tathagata (Chin rulai 如 來 ) 47 Both Shimoda Masahiro 下 田 正 弘 and Michael Radich state that in the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , a strong connection exists between buddhadhatu (Buddha-nature) and tathagatagarbha (the embryo of Buddha), related to st upa (relic-chamber) 48 Kan o Kazuo 加 納 和 雄 also asserts that both buddhadhatu and tathagatagarbha refer to the content of a st upa . Furthermore, two kinds of meaning in dhatu , containing both body and relics, are present. Beings possess buddhadhatu , understood as a Buddha’s relic, which evokes the interior of a st upa at which a relic generally sat 49 Saliently, the term buddhadhatu (Chin foxing ), regarded as the most significant term in the Da banniepan jing (Skt Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra ), cannot be found in the extant Sanskrit fragments of this scripture 50 Buddhadhatu , as noted by Takasaki and Radich, in the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , is considered a synonym of tathagatagarbha Alternatively, strictly speaking, tathagatagarbha may be a way of referring to the presence of buddhadhatu . Meanwhile, we should not ignore the cases where the Chinese term foxing is not explained by referring to tathagatagarbha 51 An interesting fact appears: the classical Chinese term foxing , emphasized in various classical Chinese translations of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , cannot be found in the existing Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra 52 Therefore, the statement that in the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , a strong connection existing between Buddha-nature and tathagatagarbha , which was pointed out by Shimoda and Radich, is mainly based on the Tibetan and Chinese translations of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . In this case, it is meaningful to reconsider the original terms and the reasons they were translated into the Chinese term foxing by these translators, including Dharmaksema Kamala´sila (ca. 740–797) quotes the following in the Bhavanakrama Thus, the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra states the following. ´Sravakas fail to see the lineage ( rigs ; gotra) of tathagata in themselves because their meditation ( samadhi ) is strong, compared to their weak wisdom. Bodhisattvas can merely see an undefined lineage of tathagata because their wisdom is strong, compared to their weak samadhi Tathagata can see all of these because he possesses both meditation and wisdom de’i phyir ’phags pa yongs su mya ngan las ’das pa chen po’i mdo las kyang nyan thos rnams kyis ni de bzhin gshegs pa’i rigs mi mthong ste/ting nge ’dzin gyi shas che ba’i phyir dang/shes rab chung ba’i phyir ro//byang chub sems dpa’ rnams kyis ni mthong mod kyi mi gsal te/shes rab kyi shas che ba’i phyir dang/ting nge ’dzin chung ba’i phyir ro//de bzhin gshegs pas ni thams cad

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Yoshimura, Sada, Zhi, Uki, Part, Shada, Yad, Uta, Kind, Parts]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 9 of 25 gzigs te/zhi gnas dang lhag mthong mtshungs par ldan pa’i phyir ro zhes bska’ stsal te/ 53 The bodhisattvas of the ten abodes possess strong wisdom but little samadhi (meditation), so that they cannot clearly see foxing (Buddha-nature). ´Sravakas and pratyekabuddhas possess strong samadhi but little wisdom, so that they cannot clearly see Buddha-nature Buddhas can clearly see Buddha-nature because they have both meditation and wisdom and have achieved buddhahood without any obstacle 十住 菩 薩 智 慧 力 多 ， 三 昧 力 少 。 是 故 不 得 明 見 佛 性 。 声 聞 縁 覚 三 昧 力 多 ， 智 慧 力 少 。 以 是 因縁 不 見 佛 性 。 諸 佛 世 尊 定 慧 等 故 ， 明 見 佛 性 ， 了了 無 礙 。 54 Commenting on this, Yoshimura Sh uki 芳 村 修 基 contends that Kamalasila’s quote corresponds to the thirty-first fascicle of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema 55 Except for small differences in their depictions of the ´sravaka and bodhisattva, these two translations correspond with each other very well. Matsuda denied the possibility that Kamalasila knew about the existence of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema 56 If so, Kamalasila merely employed the Sanskrit text and Tibetan translations to quote the sentence that sravakas fail to see the lineage ( rigs ; gotra) of tathagata . Conversely, the Da banniepan jing , translated by Dharmaksema, clearly states that sravakas and bodhisattvas cannot see foxing (Buddha-nature). Hence, the lineage ( gotra ) found in this Tibetan quote was translated as foxing in the Da banniepan jing 57 Some similar cases appear in the Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun 究 竟 一 乘 寶 性 論 [Skt Ratnagotravibhaga ]; namely, gotra was translated as zhenru foxing 真 如 佛 性 (Buddha-nature in thusness) In summary, all beings, according to the Buddha, are always tathagatagarbha according to three meanings: the tathagata ’s dharmakaya (Dharma-body) is omnipresent in all beings; there is no difference in the tathagata ’s tathata (thusness); and the gotra of tathagata (the cause for Buddhahood) exists samasatas trividhenarthena sada sarvasattvas tathagatagarbha ity uktam bhagavata/yad uta sarvasattvesu tathagatadharmakayaparispharanarthena tathagatatathatavyatibhedarthena tathagatagotrasam . bhavarthena ca/(RG, 26, 7–9) 58 This passage indicates three meanings Tathagata , therefore, the Tathagata taught that all beings always have and share the embryo of Buddha (Skt tathagatagarbha ; Chin rulaizang 如 來 藏 ). What are these three kinds? First, tathagata ’s dharmakaya (Dharma-body) is omnipresent in all beings. It is said fo fashen bianman 佛 法 身 遍 滿 (Dharma-body of Buddha is omnipresent). Second, there is no difference in tathagata ’s zhenru (thusness). It is said zhenru wu chabie 真 如 無 差 別 (there is no difference in thusness). Third, all beings have zhenru foxing 真 如 佛 性 . It is said jie shiyou foxing 皆 實 有 佛 性 (all beings possess Buddha-nature) 此 偈 明 何 義 。 有 三種 義 ， 是 故 如 來 説 一 切 時 一 切 眾 生 有 如 來 藏 。 何 等 為 三 ？ 一 者 ， 如 來 法 身 遍 在 一 切 諸 眾 生身 ， 偈 言 佛 法 身 遍 滿 故 。 二 者 ， 如 來 真 如 無 差 別 ， 偈 言 真 如 無 差 別 故 。 三者 ， 一 切 眾 生 皆 悉 實 有 真 如 佛 性 ， 偈 言 皆 實 有 佛 性 故 。 59 In the Sanskrit text, the third part of the definition of tathagatagarbha is tathagatagotra . In the classical Chinese translation, this term is translated as zhenru foxing 真 如 佛 性 . Crucially, the three parts of tathagatagarbha ’s definition, namely, dharmakaya , tathata and gotra , have been modified in the classical Chinese translation into: fashen 法 身 ・ zhenru 真 如 ・ zhenru foxing 真 如 佛 性 , respectively 60 This kind of translation of gotra in the Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun 61 , translated by Ratnamati 勒 那 摩 提 (6 th century CE; ?-508-?), is the same as in the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema 62 The Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun was translated into classical Chinese nearly a century after the Da banniepan jing . Furthermore, both were translated during the northern Chinese dynasties. For these reasons, the monks of Dilun 地 論 tradition were very likely to have been influenced by the terms and concepts of the Da banniepan jing .

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Anit, New, Man, Bodhi, Gam, San, Ram, Naga, Sara, Kah, Branch, Yada, Tika, Final, Mind, Abhi, Iti, Asia, Sharada, Lam, Ula, Sarada, Far, Papa, Mean, Due, Sam, Take, Iva, Lamp, Tada, End]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 10 of 25 On the other hand, due to the edition and research on the Sanskrit texts of the Ratnagotravibhaga and the La ˙nkavatara-s utra , it has been clarified that yichanti 一 闡 提 (Skt icchantika ; beings who cannot achieve the buddhahood) is the translation of the Sanskrit term icchantika . Saliently, as Mizutani noted, the term icchantika , which was used in the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra at a very early stage, cannot be found in any surviving Buddhist scripture established prior to the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . 63 In East Asia, numerous monks and scholars have attempted to demonstrate the possibility that icchantika achieve buddhahood 64 The most important issue, however, is the controversy about gotra and Buddha-nature (Chin foxing ) As introduced above, Matsuda edited the existent Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , which can be used to further research the classical Chinese translation. In addition, Habata Hiromi edited the extant Sanskrit fragments and provided a new translation in 2019, which is more in-depth. In these Sanskrit fragments, there is one section, as stated below Icchantikas do not see ( na pasyanti ) virtuous deeds ( kalyanakrta ). They see blame and evil ( papa ). Virtuous deeds ( sukrta ) mean Bodhi (or enlightenment) 65 Not coming means not approaching. The esoteric (or intended) meaning means what is virtuous ( kalyana ). Who is far away from esoteric deeds ( sandhakarma )? Auspicious deeds ( bhadrakarma ) do not approach the icchantika . Who is far away from a good mind? A good mind does not approach icchantika because they are not wholesome beings due to their arrogant attitudes. What is the basic branch ( m ulam . ga )? It means abandoning (or rejecting) this sutra ( s utrapratiksepa ) It is terrible because abandoning (or rejecting) the sutra is frightful. . . . . . . Who does not see (or understand) virtuous deed ( krta )? Evil icchantika does not understand virtuous deed Icchantika s do not see (or understand) virtuous deed until the end of their transmigration. I will summarize these meanings. Therefore, we should take these terrible things seriously because it is of the utmost frightfulness. At the time when all beings, after having become of one mind, will recognize the ultimate enlightenment ( anuttaram . sam . myaksam . bodhi ); it will be possible for icchantika to recognize Bodhi (enlightenment) at that time. However, icchantika s do not see (or understand) virtuous deed. The people who does not see enlightenment and virtuous deed should understand the fact. Namely, the deed of the Tathagata will not end (or destroyed) unless all beings involved in transmigration recognize the ultimate enlightenment. At that moment, the Buddha will come to complete final nirvana . Along with the final nirvana ( atyantaparinirvana ), the Buddha will become changeable and absent, like fire and a lamp 66 iccham . ti[kah. ka]lyanakrtam . na pasyata(?): pasya(m . )ti tu papam . nidistum . (!) garhitum . (!) [ca] . . sukr.(ta)[m. b]o[dh]i[r] it[y] arthah. (/) na vyaiti n[a]gacchatity arthah. (/) [san]dheti kalyanam ity arthah. (/) samndhakarmavisistakalyanam. kasya nagacchati (/) bhadrakarma iccham . tikasya naga[ccha]ti (/) +++++++ lam . satva iccham . tika iti i. +++++++++++ [ki]m . m ula(m . )gam . s utrapratiksepah. (/) [ta]smad bhetavyam s utrapratiksepako hi darunam. . . . [kah.] krtam. na pasyati (/) samsarakotyam. sa na pasyati (/) artham. bhasisye: [sam . ksepa]samuccayam . tasmad bhetavy[ah.] (pa)[ra]madaru # na[h.] (/) yada sa[rvbasa]tva [e]kamanaso bh utva anuttaram . sam . myaksam . bodhim abhisam . botsyate tada [i]ccham . [tika](h. pa)po ’pi sam . (bo)[tsyate] . . . da [pa # ram . ] bodhi(m . /) sarvba[kr.](tam. sa) na pasyati evam. janisva vi´sarada (/) kasya krtam. na pasyati tathagatas[y]a (/) [yada] sa[rvbasa]tva anuttaram sam . myaksam . bodhim abhi # sam . botsyate sam . sara . . . [ta] tada tathagatasya krtam . na vinaksya(ti/ta)da [par]inirvbayatyam . taparinirvbane[na anit]yo bu[ddho bhavisya]ti [d]ipa ivendhana . . . a[dagdhir iva . . . / 67 Good man, [regarding icchantika s,] “not seeing” refers to not seeing the buddha-nature “What is good” is anuttara samyaksam . bodhi itself. To say “they will not do it” refers to

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Wise, Goes, Matter, Truly, Jian, Shui, Bad, Zhe, Wei, Advance, Speak, Moon, Host, Fear, Gone, Friend, Oil]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 11 of 25 [an icchantika ] being unable to approach a good friend who can guide him spiritually “Only seeing” refers to seeing without good reason. The word “bad” here refers to their repudiation of the well-balanced Mahayana sutras. And “this they may do” refers to the fact that icchantika s do say there are no well-balanced [sutras]. The meaning of the verse is simply that icchantika s do not think in a way that advances them toward the pure and good dharma. What is the pure and good dharma? It is nirvana itself! To advance toward nirvana refers to the capacity to cultivate practices that are wise and good, yet icchantika s have no practices that are wise and good. This is why they are incapable of progressing toward nirvana. “On that basis, one should be afraid” refers to repudiating the true-dharma. Who should be frightened? . . . In addition, one may also speak of “not seeing what has been done” in reference to the fact that icchantika s do not admit to themselves the host of bad things they have done. Because the icchantika s are arrogant, even though they often do things that are harmful, while doing them they initially have no sense of fear. This is why icchantika s are unable to attain nirvana; they are like monkeys grabbing at the [reflection of the] moon in the water. Good man, if all living beings, however innumerable, were to all at once attain anuttara samyaksam . bodhi , the tathagatas would still not see the icchantika s attaining bodhi . This is also the meaning of what I have called “not seeing what has been carried out.” Furthermore, not seeing whose deeds were carried out means not seeing that carried out by the Tathagata. The Buddha has expounded the existence of buddha-nature for the benefit of living beings, but icchantika s transmigrate through sam . sara unable to discern what this is. It is in this sense that I used the phrase “not noticing what has been done by the tathagatas.” Icchantika s will also look at the complete nirvana of the Tathagata and say to themselves, “This truly shows impermanence, nothing more than a lamp going out when its oil is extinguished.” 68 不 見 者 謂 不 見 佛 性 。 善 者 即 是 阿 耨 多 羅 三 藐 三 菩 提 。 不 作 者 所 謂 不 能 親 近 善 友 。 唯 見 者 見 無 因果 。 惡 者 謂 謗 方 等 大 乘 經 典 。 可 作 者 謂一 闡 提 説 無 方 等 。 以 是 義 故 ， 一 闡 提 輩 無 心 趣 向 清 淨 善 法 。 何 等 善 法 。 謂 涅 槃 也 。 趣 涅 槃 者 謂 能 修習 賢 善 之 行 。 而 一 闡 提 無 賢 善 行 ， 是 故 不 能 趣 向 涅 槃 。 是 處 可畏謂 謗 正 法 ， 誰 應 怖 畏 ？ . . . . . 復 次 不 見 所 作 者 謂一 闡 提 所 作 眾 惡 而 不 自 見 。 是 一 闡 提 憍 慢 心 故 ， 雖 多 作 惡 ， 於 是 事 中 初 無 怖 畏 。 以 是 義 故 ， 不 得 涅 槃 。 喩 如 獼 猴 捉 水 中 月 。 善 男 子 ， 假 使 一 切 無 量 眾 生 一 時 成 於阿 耨 多 羅 三 藐 三 菩 提 已 ， 此 諸 如 來 亦 復不 見 彼 一 闡 提 成 於 菩 提 。 以 是 義 故 ， 名 不 見 所 作 。 又 復不 見 誰 之 所 作 ， 所 謂 不 見 如 來 所 作 。 佛 為 眾 説 有 佛 性 ， 一 闡 提 輩 流 轉 生 死 ， 不 能 知 見 。 以 是 義 故 ， 名 為 不 見 如 來 所 作 。 又 一 闡 提 見 於 如 來 畢 竟 涅 槃 ， 謂 真 無 常 。 猶 如燈 滅 ， 膏 油 俱 尽 。 69 The Sanskrit fragment states that icchantika s do not see (or understand) virtuous deeds ( kalyanakrta ). Since this Sanskrit fragment is very likely later than what Dharmaksema would have translated, we cannot know that this Sanskrit was what Dharmaksema translated. The only thing I can say here is that Dharmaksema translates this as “ bu jian zhe wei bu jian foxing 不 見 者 謂 不 見 佛 性 ”, which differs from that in our surviving Sanskrit fragment, in his classical Chinese rendering, no matter what underlying term or phrase he read 70 The Sanskrit fragment states “the deed of the Tathagata will not end (or destroyed) unless all beings involved in transmigration recognize the ultimate enlightenment. At that moment, the Buddha will come to complete final nirvana . Along with the final nirvana ( atyantaparinirvana ), the Buddha will become changeable and absent, like fire and a lamp.” Alternatively, the classical Chinese translation by Dharmaksema states that “ bu jian shui zhi suozuo 不 見 誰 之 所 作 (not seeing whose deeds were carried out)” means ignoring tathagata ’s deeds. Although Buddha explained foxing for beings, icchantikas cannot recognize foxing due to their transmigration. Thus, it is called “ bu jian rulai suozuo 不 見 如 來 所 作 (not seeing that carried out by the Tathagata).” Seeing that the Tathagata has gone into the ultimate nirvana , the icchantika s mistakenly thinks that the Tathagata is impermanent, just like the light that goes out when the oil is exhausted. Specifically, in the Sanskrit fragment, “ dhatu ” does not appear in this passage. On the contrary, Dharmaksema and his collaborators translated something as “ foxing ,” which is the Chinese translation term of “ buddhadhatu ” or “ dhatu ” in many cases.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Choice, Evidence, October, Reign, Record]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 12 of 25 Evidently, Dharmaksema and his collaborators translated something, compared with kalyanakrta and sam . myaksam . bodhi found in the extant Sanskrit fragment, as foxing in the Da banniepan jing . The case that this kind of translation was made by Dharmaksema’s hand is doubtful. Furthermore, the material corresponding to the sentence “ yichanti jian yu rulai bijing niepan 一 闡 提 見 於 如 來 畢 竟 涅 槃 ” cannot be found in the Sanskrit fragment Accordingly, compared to Dharmaksema’s translation, it is difficult to identify the direct evidence that icchantika can also achieve buddhahood in the existing Sanskrit fragments Notably, as the above section, the difference between the Sanskrit fragment and Chinese translation is located in the ninth fascicle of the Da banniepan jing , which is attributed to a rendering by Dharmaksema himself. According to previous research, after the finishing of the translation of the first twelve fascicles of the Da banniepan jing , Dharmaksema stayed in Guzang 姑 臧 and learned the Chinese language for three years 71 In other words, the section discussed above, where the difference in foxing between Sanskrit and Chinese appears, was translated by Dharmaksema when he was not proficient in the Chinese language. For this reason, it would be understandable if his collaborators and disciples inserted some personal views, or removed agency from Dharmaksema, into their translations 72 According to the Gaoseng zhuan 高 僧 傳 [Biographies of Eminent Monks], Dharmaksema was engaged in the translation work of the Da banniepan jing from 414 to 421 73 Dharmaksema intended to go abroad because there was a shortage in the original text of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . However, due to his mother’s death, he had no choice but to stay for several years. After that, he actually went to Khotan and found the middle portion of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . Dharmaksema then returned to Guzang and translated it. Finally, he sent people to Khotan and found the latter portion of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . This was translated into the thirty-three fascicles of the Da boeniapan jing . This translation work was launched during the third year of Xuanshi 玄 始 and finished on the twenty-third of October of the tenth year of Xuanshi, namely the second year of Yongchu 永 初 讖 以 《 涅 槃 經 》 本 品 数 未 足 ， 還外 国 究 尋 。 値 其 母亡 ， 遂 留 歳 餘 。 後 於 于 闐 更 得 經 本 中 分 ， 復 還 姑 臧 譯 之 。 後 又 遣 使 于 闐 尋 得 後 分 ， 於 是 續 譯 為 三十三 巻 。 以 偽 玄 始三 年 初 就 翻 譯 ， 至 玄 始十 年 十 月 二 十三 日 三 袠 方 竟 ， 即宋 武 永 初 二年 也 。 74 Furthermore, according to the Guanding 灌 頂 (561–632)’s record, from 414 to 416, Dharmaksema was engaged in translating the Da banniepan jing by collaborating with Zhimeng 智 猛 (?–452) 75 When Dharmaksema arrived at the western Liang state 西 涼 州 , Juqu Mengxun 沮 渠 蒙 遜 dominated the Longhou 隴 後 area and the Xuanshi 玄 始 reign began. During the third year of Xuanshi, Juqu Mengxun asked Dharmaksema to translate the Da banniepan jing Dharmaksema translated five fascicles of its original text into twenty fascicles of the classical Chinese translation. After that, due to the shortage in the original text, Juqu mengxun sent people abroad and found eight fascicles. They were the chapters of bingxing 病 行 品 , shengxing 聖 行 品 , fanxing 梵 行 品 , yingerxing 嬰 兒 行 品 , dewang 徳 王 品 , shizihou 師子 吼 品 , jiashe 迦 葉 品 and chenru 陳 如 品 . Dharmaksema translated them into twenty fascicles and spread them across northern China. During the fifth year of Xuanshi, the translation work of the Da banniepan jing was complete 到 西 涼 州 ， 値 沮 渠 蒙 遜 割 拠 隴 後 ， 自 号玄 始 。 其 号 三 年 ， 請 曇 無羅 讖 共 猛訳 五 品 ， 得二 十 巻 。 遜 恨 文 義 不 圓 ， 再 遣 使 外 国 ， 更 得八 品 。 謂 病 行 、 聖 行 、 梵 行 、 嬰 兒 行 、 德 王 、 師子 吼 、 迦 葉 、 陳 如等 品 。 又翻 二 十 巻 ， 合 成 四十軸 ， 伝 於 北 方 。 玄 始 五 年乃得 究 訖 。 76 If these documents are examined together, they record that Dharmaksema clearly translated the original text of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra with Zhimeng and the support of other collaborators at least twice 77 If so, the significant difference in foxing between the extant Sanskrit fragments and Dharmaksema’s Da banniepan jing discussed in this section belongs to the first twelve fascicles of his translation, which was translated by Dharmaksema and his collaborators when he had not yet mastered the Chinese language.

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 13 of 25 Accordingly, the role of Dharmaksema’s collaborators and disciples in his translation of the Da banniepan jing is important. Needless to say, it is also likely that Dharmaksema had seen Faxian’s translation, and its use of foxing , and himself reasoned that this was a good way of communicating what the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra was teaching Regarding my hypothesis mentioned above, one of my reviewers once noted: “Even if Dharmaksema was not familiar with the Chinese language at that time, in my opinion, a translator’s limited proficiency in the target language does not make it more likely that the translator would insert into his translation something that is not there in the source language. Probably the reverse argument can also be made, namely, a translator who has excellent proficiency in the target language would then be more likely to insert into his translation something that was not there in the source language. Alternatively, I don’t think it makes much sense for the author to suggest that, since his Chinese language was not good enough, then his collaborators and disciples inserted some personal views into their translations. Were Dharmaksema’s colleagues to add anything into the translation of the Da banniepan jing , this inserted notion must had already become quite popular before the text was translated.” I have to add something of my response towards this query here. In my view, it is likely that either Dharmaksema or his collaborators and disciples translated some other terms as the Chinese term foxing . There are further two possibilities. One is that they created the term foxing here. Another possibility is that they used the term foxing , which had already become popular before the translation of the Da banniepan jing . For the second possibility, when I say Dharmaksema’s collaborators and disciples inserted some personal views into their translations, needless to say, it is also possible that their personal views had been influenced by some terms which had already become popular then. In other words, I do not think that there is a fundamental contradiction between my reviewer’s hypothesis and that of mine, although both of our views are merely assumptions 78 Additionally, some sections of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema state that icchantika s also possess foxing For those who are icchantika s, although they possess buddha-nature, they are held down by the stain of their innumerable transgressions, unable to get free, like silkworms inside of cocoons. Because of their karmic conditions, they cannot produce a marvellous cause that would lead to bodhi and instead transmigrate through sam . sara with no end in sight 79 彼 一 闡 提 雖 有 佛 性 ， 而 為 無 量 罪垢 所 纏 ， 不 能得 出 。 如 蠶 所 繭 。 以 是 業 緣 ， 不 能 生 於 菩 提 妙 因 。 流 轉 生 死 ， 無有 窮 已 。 80 As mentioned above, Chinese translators used the term foxing to correspond with various original terms. In this section, they translate “ bi yichanti sui you foxing 彼 一 闡 提 雖 有 佛 性 .” Furthermore, although the Chinese translation states that icchantika s can merely float in the stream of birth and death without becoming free from transmigration, according to its interpretation, icchantika s definitely possess foxing . This statement has strongly influenced even wider East Asian Buddhist thought Conversely, the Nihuan jing translated by Faxian states the following Icchantika s are separated from the rulai xing 如 來 性 (lineage of the tathagata ) forever due to committing the crime of criticizing the Buddhist Dharma. It is like the cocoon created by bugs which controls the bugs themselves, so do icchantika s. They cannot stimulate their origins of Bodhi in the lineage of the tathagata , so that they cannot become free from transmigration during all lives 彼 一 闡 提 於 如 來 性所 以永 絶 ， 斯 由 誹 謗 作 大 惡 業 。 如 彼 蠶 虫 綿網 ， 自 纏 而 無 出 處 。 一 闡 提 輩 亦 復 如 是 。 於 如 來 性 不 能 開 發 起 菩 提 因 ， 乃 至 一 切 極 生 死 際 。 81 Evidently, the rulai xing 如 來 性 found in this section of the Nihuan jing corresponds to the foxing stated in the Da banniepan jing . 82 However, the Nihuan jing clearly states that icchantika s are forever separated from the rulai xing due to committing the crime of criticizing the Buddhist Dharma. Although Faxian also used the term foxing in the Nihuan

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Less, Matsumoto, Tikah, Impossible, Shir]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 14 of 25 jing , there were fewer uses of the term than those in the Da banniepan jing . In this section, Faxian used the term rulai xing instead of foxing Regardless, it remains necessary to confirm whether the original Sanskrit text of the Nihuan jing and that of the Da banniepan jing are identical or not. From the perspective discussed above, on the relationship between icchantika and rulai xing (or foxing ), it seems likely that the assertions of Dharmaksema’s Chinese collaborators also influenced the translation more or less 83 Identical to the classical Chinese translation by Dharmaksema, the Tibetan translation of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra states that Buddha-nature is also within the icchantika s ’ bodies; among various translations of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , the only version that states the icchantika without Buddha-nature is the Nihuan jing . It is very likely that the translators of the Tibetan translation consulted Dharmaksema’s classical Chinese translation 84 According to ¯ Och o, the Nihuan jing denies the possibility that icchantika s can achieve buddhahood, whereas the Da banniepan jing states that icchantika s can achieve this if they successfully see their shanxin 善 心 (good mind) 85 The discussion above also clarifies ¯ Och o’s assertion. The sentence “ iccham . tikah. kalyanakrtam . na ” in the extant Sanskrit fragment corresponds to “ bu jian zhe wei bu jian foxing 不 見 者 謂 不 見 佛 性 .” “ Icchantika s fail to see virtuous deed ( kalyanakrta )” in this Sanskrit fragment corresponds to “ icchantika s can achieve buddhahood” in the Da banniepan jing . While we cannot know what Dharmaksema was seeing in his Sanskrit text, I contend that this translation strongly supported the theory that icchantika s can achieve buddhahood in East Asian Buddhism 86 Concerning this issue, Takasaki notes that the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema, alongside the Nihuan jing translated by Faxian, also states that icchantika s do not possess foxing before the eleventh fascicle. In contrast, after this fascicle, the Da banniepan jing admits the possibility that icchantika s could finally achieve buddhahood Saliently, the above portion can only be found in the classical Chinese translation rather than the Sanskrit or other texts 87 Furthermore, Matsumoto Shir o 松 本 史 朗 asserts that in the Da banniepan jing , the you foxing 有 佛 性 (possessing Buddha-nature) does not mean jie chengfo 皆 成 佛 (accomplishing buddhahood for all beings) 88 Both Takasaki and Matsumoto were aware of the difference between the first twelve and subsequent fascicles of the Da banniepan jing . Clearly, their assertions reinforce my opinion To summarize, as a classical Chinese Buddhist canon text translated at the beginning of the fifth century, the Da banniepan jing used the term foxing , which cannot be correspondingly confirmed in the surviving Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra Foxing was most naturally translated buddhadhatu , but the Sanskrit fragments do not mention buddhadhatu . Those sections where the difference between the Sanskrit and the Chinese translation of foxing appears belong to the translation made by Dharmaksema before he was proficient in the Chinese language 89 For this reason, it is not impossible that his collaborators and disciples may have inserted some personal views into their translations. It is possible that his inserted notion had already become popular before the translation of the Da banniepan jing . Meanwhile, it is also likely that Dharmaksema had seen Faxian’s translation, and its use of foxing , and himself reasoned that this was a good, shorthand way of communicating what the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra was teaching Moreover, over half of the Da banniepan jing , after the first 10 juan , is unique to this version. We have no Sanskrit fragments corresponding to its content and no Tibetan, apart from a Tibetan translation made from Dharmaksema’s Chinese translation 90 5. Foxing in the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing 大 方 等 無 想 經 and Gunabhadra’s Renderings In this short section, as a supplement for this study, I intend to slightly mention the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing 大 方 等 無 想 經 [Skt Mahameghas utra ; T 387] by Dharmaksema and the renderings by Gunabhadra 求 那 跋 陀 羅 (394–468) from roughly the same time As is mentioned in the first section of this article, according to the Chu sanzang ji ji 出三 藏 記 集 , 11 texts were regarded as Dharmaksema’s translations. It is impossible to

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 15 of 25 analyze the term foxing in all of them in this space-limited article. Since we have a Tibetan translation of the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing , the Sprin chen po’i mdo (Derge no. 232; Peking no. 898), I merely have a look at one case of foxing in this text The Mahameghas utra is a tathagatagarbha doctrinal sutra, overlapping with the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . The Da fangdeng wuxiang jing , the Chinese rendering of the Mahameghas utra , was also translated by Dharmaksema. In the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing and the corresponding Tibetan translation, we can find the following example: Da fangdeng wuxiang jing 大 方 等 無 想 經 (Taish o no. 387, 1102 b 2–3) Sprin chen po’i mdo (Derge no. 232, 194 b) 猛 風 起 者 ， 喻 如 來 常 。 風 入 毛 孔 者 ， 喻 諸 眾 生 悉 有 佛 性 。 de bzhin du ’dir yang ting nge ’dzin gyis de bzhin gshegs pa’i yon tan rtag pa nyid kyi yon tan gyis bsgos pa’i rlung nyon mongs pa’i nam mkha’ la ldang bar byed cing/ In the Tibetan rendering, confirming a reasonable corresponding term to the Chinese term foxing here is a little difficult. We cannot find de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po (buddhanature), but only de bzhin gshegs pa’i yon tan or rtag pa nyid kyi yon tan . We also confirm some similar cases in the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing like this 91 In other words, Dharmaksema uses the term foxing in the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing , while the corresponding term or phrase in the Tibetan translation is unclear Although the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing may appear to be a partial translation of the Mahamegha-s utra , the real situation was more likely that the original text was still incomplete when Dharmaksema brought it to China 92 Gunabhadra was born in central India to a brahmana family and departed from Sri Lanka for China, arriving in Guangzhou by sea in around 435 93 He translated some famous Mahayanist sutras, including the Yangjuemoluo jing 央 掘 魔羅 經 [Pali A ˙ngulimala-sutta ; Skt A ˙ngulimaliyas utra ; T 120] and the Da fagu jing 大 法 鼓 經 [Skt Mahabheriharakas utra ; T 270], in which the term foxing can be found. The Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema, however, was brought to Jiankang 建 康 , present-day Nanjing 南 京 , becoming the foundation of the southern version of this scripture’s Chinese rendering. Huiyan 慧 嚴 (363–433), Huiguan 慧 觀 (4 th to 5 th centuries CE) and Xie Lingyun 謝 靈 運 (385–433) edited this scripture into the southern version in 436 94 Moreover, with their help, Gunabhadra translated some texts 95 For this reason, the term foxing found in Gunabhadra’s renderings, which were translated later than the renderings translated by Faxian, Buddhabhadra and Dharmaksema, was probably more or less influenced by the Da banniepan jing 96 6. The Interpretations of Foxing in Later Chinese Buddhism Dharmaksema was proficient at incantation and respected in many countries 97 Finally, he was assassinated by Juqu Mengxun 沮 渠 蒙 遜 (368–433), the King of Northern Liang 北 涼 Northern Wei destroyed Northern Liang very soon afterwards. Dharmaksema’s disciples and collaborators moved to Pingcheng 平 城 , the capital of Northern Wei 北 魏 . Furthermore, the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema was brought to Jiankang 建 康 , becoming the foundation of the southern version of this scripture’s classical Chinese translation. Hence, in my opinion, the translations and concepts in Dharmaksema’s system strongly influenced Buddhism during the Northern Wei period, especially Bodhiruci 菩 提 流 支 (6 th century CE; active in China after 508) and Ratnamati 勒 那 摩 提 (6 th century CE; active in China after 508). The Da banniepan jing , which was sufficiently researched in Northern Wei, became the foundation of the doctrines of the Dilun tradition 地 論 宗 , including Huiyuan of the Jingying temple 淨 影 寺 慧 遠 (523–592) 98 The influence of the Da banniepan jing on Chinese Buddhist thought is apparent. As abundant amount of research already exists on this issue 99 ; I will, therefore, merely discuss the cases of Huiyuan of the Jingying temple and Guanding of the Tiantai tradition 天 台 宗 in this section In the Da banniepan jing yi ji 大 般 涅 槃 經 義記 [Meaning of the Great Nirvana Sutra], Huiyuan’s commentary on the Da banniepan jing , he states the following.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Form, Human, Normal, Vital, Ear, Tong, Divya, Principal]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 16 of 25 There is a type of Buddha-nature that the icchantika s have but those who possess wholesome roots do not. [Namely, the icchantika s] have the unwholesome nature, and hence they lack wholesome nature. Due to dependent origination [based upon] the Buddhanature, unwholesome aggregates arise. Hence unwholesome aggregates are named Buddhanature, which the icchantika s have. There is another type of Buddha-nature that those who possess wholesome roots have but the icchantika s don’t. Those who have advanced above the first [bodhisattva-]stage are called people with wholesome roots. Or more broadly, the bodhisattvas above the stage of buddha-gotra (Chin zhongxing di 種 性 地 ) are named wholesome human beings (i.e., people with wholesome roots). They have wholesome nature and lack unwholesome nature. There is a type of Buddha-nature that both [of the above two groups of people] have, namely, they both have the nature as the principle ( lixing 理 性 is a short form for li foxing 理 佛 性 ). There is another type of Buddha-nature that both [of the above two groups of people] do not have, namely, neither of them has the nature as the result (meaning that they have not attained Buddhahood) 或 有 佛 性 ， 一 闡 提 有 ， 善 根 無 者 ， 有 不 善 性 ， 無 其善 性 。 佛 性 緣 起 為 不 善 陰 ， 故 不 善 陰 名 為 佛 性 。 闡 提 有 此 。 或 有 佛 性 ， 善 根 人 有 ， 闡 提 無 者 ， 初 地 已 上 名 善 根 人 ， 通 則 種 性 已 上 菩 薩斯 名 善 人 。 彼 有 善 性 ， 無 不 善 性 。 或 有 佛 性 ， 二 人 俱 有 ， 俱 有 理 性 。 或 性 ， 二 俱 無 ， 俱 無 果 性 。 100 Huiyuan’s interpretation contains vital information. The statement that icchantika s also possess Buddha-nature ( foxing ) is clearly influenced by the Da banniepan jing . According to Huiyuan’s explanation, icchantika s have the arising Buddha-nature and principal Buddhanature. Among these two, the arising Buddha-nature is only possessed by icchantika s. Thus, it is clear that Huiyuan was deeply influenced by the Da banniepan jing and regarded it as the foundation of his theory of Buddha-nature 101 The most significant connection in this passage is the term foxing , which cannot be correspondingly confirmed in the current Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra Accordingly, after Northern Wei extinguished Northern Liang, the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema, and his assistants’ interpretations, were likely conveyed to Pingcheng, the Northern Wei capital, and influenced the Dilun monastic tradition, including monks such as Huiyuan Moreover, Guanding states in the Da banniepan jing shu 大 般 涅 槃 經 疏 [Commentary on the Mahaparinirvana-Sutra ] as below First, hearing (Chin wen 聞 ) is divine ear (Skt divya´srotra ; Chin tianer 天 耳 ). Seeing (Chin jian 見 ) is divine eye (Skt divyacaksus ; Chin tianyan 天 眼 ). They relate to the jishen tong 即 身 通 (penetrating understanding with the body). Second, the ninth stage is hearing, in which one can see Buddha-nature. The tenth stage is sight, in which one can complete and clarify himself through seeing Buddha-nature. Achieving the ninth stage by liberation of wisdom is the particular hearing which is manifested without normal hearing. Achieving the tenth stage from the ninth stage is the particular seeing which is manifested without normal seeing. Achieving the buddhahood stage from the tenth stage is the particular achieving which is manifested without normal achieving 一云 ， 聞 即 天 耳 ， 見 即 天 眼 ， 至 即 身 通 。 二 云 ， 九 地 為 聞 ， 見 佛 性 ， 十 地 為 眼 。 見 佛 性 ， 具 足 明 了 。 今 因 慧 解 脱 至 第 九 地 ， 是 不聞 而 聞 。 因 九 地 至十 地 ， 即 不 見 而 見 。 因 十 地 至 佛 地 ， 為 不 至而至 。 102 Guanding mentions the term “ jian foxing 見 佛 性 ” as found in the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema in his commentary and states that one would see foxing if he has achieved the ninth stage of bodhisattvas’ stages. As has been discussed above, Dharmaksema and his assistants translated something, which is reported as the gotra of tathagata ( rigs ) and good deeds ( kalyanakrta ) in the surviving Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , as jian foxing (seeing Buddha-nature) 103 Evidently, the gotra of tathagata ( rigs ) means those people who will or have achieved the boundary of the tathagata . However, Guanding only used the term jian foxing , while zhongxing (Skt gotra ;

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 17 of 25 lineage/caste) cannot be found. Furthermore, he attempted to integrate jian foxing with the theory of the stages of the bodhisattvas, especially the ninth stage 104 Evidently, the Da banniepan jing was translated by Dharmaksema with his assistants’ interpretations, influenced not only the Dilun monastic tradition, but also the Tiantai monastic tradition and monks such as Guanding. The term “ jian foxing ” found in the Da banniepan jing was emphasized by Guanding, the direct disciple of Zhiyi 智 顗 (538–597) 105 As is well known, this term greatly influenced the later Tiantai tradition, the Huayan 華 嚴 (Jp. Kegon) tradition and Chan 禪 (Jp. Zen) Buddhism through some of the early Tiantai monks such as Guanding. According to Whalen Lai, the Tiantai tradition, based on the Lotus S utra (Chin Fahua jing 法 華 經 ), superseded the Nirvana tradition 涅 槃 宗 by incorporating many of its ideas 106 We can therefore imagine the wide influence of the Da banniepan jing ( Nirvana S utra ) and the Nirvana tradition. Needless to say, the most important idea of the Nirvana tradition is the theory of foxing 107 However, also as discussed above, the extant Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra states that icchantika s do not see good deeds ( kalyanakrta ). Instead, the term or phrase in this corresponding place was rendered as “ bu jian foxi ng 不 見 佛 性 ” in the Da banniepan jing . The most important term foxing cannot be found as a fixed term in our current Sanskrit fragment While probably correct from the perspective of those Indic original texts, I suppose that a crucial point exists. That is, from the perspective of a Chinese reader, in all these cases there is only one single term—the Chinese word foxing 佛 性 108 7. Conclusions In East Asian Buddhism, rulaizang (Skt tathagatagarbha ) is sometimes considered a synonym of foxing (Buddha-nature) because the relationship between these two terms was ambiguous in Chinese Buddhism since some monks and schools declared that foxing is the same as rulaizang . The early translators who emphasized some translated terms as foxing were Buddhabhadra and Dharmaksema, two Indian Buddhist monks living in China in the first half of the fifth century. That is to say, the cases of the Chinese term foxing appeared during the Northern Liang dynasty (397–439) and the second half of the Eastern Jin (317–420) are probably the key to probing some early cases where the term foxing appeared The Da fangdeng rulaizang jing (Skt Tathagatagarbha-s utra ) translated by Buddhabhadra is a very early classical Chinese Buddhist canon text where the term foxing is clearly used to express Buddha-nature. However, the Chinese term foxing is difficult to confirm in Amoghavajra’s classical Chinese translation. Although a lack of clarity remains about Buddhabhadra’s motivation, as an early classical Chinese Buddhist canon text, the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing used the term foxing , which cannot be confirmed in other extant translations of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra . 109 Compared to the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing , the Da banniepan jing (Skt Mahaparinirvanamahas utra ) translated by Dharmaksema has exerted a much greater influence on Chinese Buddhist thought. As another early classical Chinese Buddhist canonical text, the Da banniepan jing also used the term foxing , which cannot be correspondingly confirmed in the surviving Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . 110 The sections where the differences between the Sanskrit fragment and the Chinese term foxing appear belong to Dharmaksema’s early translation before he was proficient in the Chinese language Furthermore, it is very unrealistic to believe that the same person or group simultaneously translated all forty fascicles of the Da banniepan jing . Different people would have edited these fascicles in several stages. Notably, buddhadhatu , the original Sanskrit term of the Chinese term foxing , which is regarded as the most significant term in the Da banniepan jing , cannot be found in the extant Sanskrit fragments of this scripture. Dharmaksema translated the original text of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra with Zhimeng and the support of other collaborators at least twice. The significant difference between the Sanskrit fragments and the classical Chinese translation of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra in this article belongs to the first twelve fascicles of Dharmaksema’s translation aided by his disciples

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 18 of 25 and collaborators when he had not yet mastered the Chinese language. Therefore, we should not ignore the role of his assistants. Of course, it is also likely that Dharmaksema had seen Faxian’s translation and its use of foxing and, himself, reasoned that this was a good, shorthand way of communicating what the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra was teaching Meanwhile, we frequently find sangs rgyas kyi khams/dbyings , which is a translation of buddhadhatu in the Tibetan rendering of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . This leads us to presume that Faxian and Dharmaksema both read versions of the Mahaparinirvanamahas utra that used this term and translated it and other terms, including those I mentioned in this article, with foxing It is likely that Faxian translated a version of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra that featured buddhadhatu as foxing . Buddhabhadra, in the same period, translated a version of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra . In some passages, he had favoured the term foxing over a literal translation of the Sanskrit. As a contemporary monk with Buddhabhadra and Faxian, Dharmaksema translated the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra , going further than Faxian by using the term foxing regularly. Our Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra are surely of a later date 111 We can suspect that both Dharmaksema and Buddhabhadra employ foxing as a non-literal translation, after Faxian Moreover, after Northern Wei extinguished Northern Liang, the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema, and the interpretations of his collaborators and disciples were likely conveyed to Pingcheng, the Northern Wei capital. These two texts translated by Buddhabhadra and Dharmaksema respectively, especially the Da banniepan jing , deeply influenced the Dilun monastic tradition. Among these, the term foxing and its Sinicism explanations played a highly significant role, influencing the whole of East Asian Buddhist thought. Needless to say, the controversies focusing on the concept of “Buddha-nature” within all sentient beings in East Asian Buddhism, including the theory of tathagatagarbha , are closely related to the term foxing and its Sinicism explanations discussed in this article However, it is difficult to clarify the accurate origin of the Chinese term foxing at least at the beginning of the fifth century in the relevant Sanskrit and Tibetan fragments and texts at present 112 The aim of this article was not to be exhaustive or comprehensive but to provide some additional reflections on the term foxing represented in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing and the Da banniepan jing , two contemporary classical Chinese renderings, suggesting possible further research. Although it is a little difficult to say that the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing and the Da banniepan jing are the earliest classical Chinese Buddhist canon texts where the term foxing is clearly used to express Buddha-nature, these two Chinese renderings are very early-stage translations in this sense. It is hoped that this study can make a small contribution to reconsider the origin and background of the Chinese term foxing within the historical context of Chinese Buddhist translation Funding: This research was funded by Robert H. N. Ho Family Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship in Buddhist Studies 2019 Data Availability Statement: Not applicable Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest Notes 1 Regarding these controversies on Buddha-nature and tathagatagarbha , see Swanson ( 1993 ). 2 The term buddhadhatu was also translated with foxing in some texts. While Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra do not preserve buddhadhatu , the Tibetan corresponding to the Chinese preserves sangs rgyas kyi khams/dbyings , which is a rendering of buddhadhatu . See Jones ( 2020 b ). Versions of the Ratnagotravibhagavyakhya confirm that foxing was used to translate buddhadhatu However, following Radich ( 2015 ), Dharmaksema seems unlikely to have made a direct translation ‘ buddhadhatu > foxing ’ in his work. See Radich ( 2015 , pp. 23–24) 3 Concerning the development of Nirvana tradition in China, see Fuse ( 1974 a , 1974 b ); Mather ( 1981 ).

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 19 of 25 4 We also find the term foxing in the Mohe bore boluomi jing 摩 訶 般 若 波 羅蜜 經 translated by Kumarajiva 鳩 摩羅 什 (344–413) ( T . 223: 8.299 a 23-24) and the Dazhidu lun 大 智度 論 (T. 1509: 25.499 a 21-22). Since the Sanskrit text of Kumarajiva’s Larger Prajñaparamita is extant and edited, further work on the comparison with Sanskrit text is inevitable. According to most of the previous research, however, it is very likely that Kumarajiva did not know the theory of Buddha-nature 5 Regarding this approach, see Radich ( 2015 ); Zimmermann ( 2002 ); Jones ( 2021 ). 6 The Sanskrit Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra is a way to identify this as the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-sutra 7 The term dhatu itself means other things also. The range of things communicated by dhatu is not perfectly covered by the character xing 性 . Concerning the meaning of the word xing in Chinese non-Buddhist culture, see Sat o ( 1998 ). 8 Concerning the history of the Buddha-nature concept in Chinese Buddhism, there are already a large number of books and articles. For instance, Tokiwa ( 1930 ); Liu ( 1982 ); Lai ( 1988 ); and Liu ( 2008 ), etc. However, most of these researches hardly considered and used the relevant Sanskrit and Tibetan texts 9 Chu sanzang ji ji 出三 蔵 記 集 2, T. 2145: 55.11 b 10–25 10 Regarding the original name and its translation of Tanwuchen (Tanmochen) 曇 無 ( 摩 ) 讖 , see Fuse ( 1974 a , 1974 b , pp. 116–38) 11 Concerning the subsequence of the texts translated by Dharmaksema, Chen Jinhua 陳 金 華 has further research. See Chen ( 2004 ). The Indian Buddhist Missionary Dharmaksema (385–433): A New Dating of his Arrival in Guzang and of his Translations T’oung Pao 90(4): 215–63. Chen argues that Dharmaksema in fact performed no translation until 421 12 Regarding this fact, see Fuse ( 1974 a , pp. 98–99) 13 Regarding the biography of Faxian, see Legge ( 1886 ); Adachi ( 1940 ); Zhang ( 1985 ). 14 Radich demonstrates that the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra attributed to Faxian ( T 7) and the translation of the Buddhacarita ( T 192) attributed to Baoyun 寶 雲 (376?–449) are closely related and were probably both translated by Baoyun. See Radich ( 2019 b ). 15 According to Lettere, the Chu sanzang ji ji played a role in limiting the impact of Baoyun’s translation activities. Moreover, Huijiao 慧 皎 (497–554) attempted to blame Baoyun’s poor interpreting, rather than Buddhabhadra’s contrast with Kumarajiva, as the cause of the contrasts between Buddhabhadra and the sa ˙ngha in Chang’an 長 安 . See Lettere ( 2020 ). 16 Regarding the biography of Dharmaksema, see Chen ( 2004 ) and Stephen Hodge ( 2012 ). 17 Regarding this report, see Takasaki ( 1987 ). 18 Concerning this work, see Matsuda ( 1988 ). 19 See the following works, Habata ( 2009 ), Habata ( 2013 ). 20 These fragments had been edited, see Habata ( 2019 ). 21 ¯ Ono ( 1954 , pp. 236–37). Also see Michael Radich’s database of attributions ( https://dazangthingsnz/cbc/text/1323/ , accessed on 1 June 2022) 22 Regarding this, see ¯ Och o ( 1981 , p. 39) 23 Concerning Feng’s statement, see Feng ( 1976 ). 24 Chen’s argument had been accepted by many scholars, see Chen ( 2004 , pp. 215–63) 25 Most recently, Radich considers the material exclusive to Dharmaksema’s translation. See Radich ( 2019 a ). 26 The following book can be related to the relationship between the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing and the Da banniepan jing : Matsumoto ( 2021 ), chapter 3, Nyoraiz o ky o to nehan gy o 『 如 来 蔵 経 』 と 『 涅 槃 経 』 27 Fozu tongji 佛 祖 統 紀 36, T. 2035: 49.342 b 15–343 a 3 28 For instance, the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra was translated by Dharmaksema (T 374) and edited by Huiguan 慧 觀 (T 375) Kumarajiva met Buddhabhadra and Vimalaksa (Chin. Beimo luocha 卑 摩羅 叉 ) in Changan 長 安 . After Kumarajiva’s death, Vimalaksa left Changan for Jiangling 江 陵 and cooperated with Huiguan. See the Lidai sanbao ji 代 三 寶 記 7, T. 2034: 49.70 c 22–71 a 1 29 Although a decision to treat the Fozu tongji as an historical source for the early fifth century on a part with the primary documents needs to be further discussed, the information recorded here mentions some accurate dates and persons, which can be consulted as at least some subsidiary materials. Meanwhile, I concede that the Fozu tongji is a much later source, which has its disadvantages and limitations 30 Regarding this interpretation, see Michael Zimmermann ( 2002 , pp. 39–50); Jones ( 2020 b , p. 145); Jones ( 2020 a ); Kan o ( 2020 ). 31 The Lidai sanbao ji 代 三 寶 紀 records: “ 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 一 卷 ( 元 熙 二年 於 道 場 寺出 , 是 第 二 譯 , 見 道 祖 晉 世 雜 錄 , 與 法 立 出者 小 異 。 ) . . 右一 十 五 部 一 百 一 十 五 卷 , 安 帝 世 , 北 天 竺 國 三 藏 禪 師 佛 駄 跋 陀 羅 , 晉 言 覺 賢 。 ” (T 49, no. 2034, 71 a 13-b 1) This indicates that the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 ( T vol. 16, no. 666), translated by Buddhabhadra, is one of the two Chinese renderings of the Tathagatagarbha-sutra 32 Strickmann writes: “Properly speaking, many of [Amoghavajra’s 167 ‘translations’] were not translations at all. Instead, they might better be called ‘adaptations’; essentially, he refurbished them in line with his own terminology and ritual practice. This becomes even more striking in those cases where texts ‘translated’ by Amoghavajra are known to have been written in China centuries earlier, and directly in Chinese. A substantial part of Amoghavajra’s output thus comprises revisions of books already known in China, rather than new materials. Among the remaining, a good many cannot be found either in corresponding

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 20 of 25 Sanskrit manuscripts or in Tibetan translation—at least not in the form in which Amoghavajra presents them.” See Strickmann ( 2002 ). Also see Michael Radich’s database of attributions ( https://dazangthingsnz/cbc/text/967/ , accessed on 1 June 2022) 33 Zimmermann ( 2002 ) suggests two recensions of the text of the Tathagatagarbhas utra : TGS 1 represented just by Buddhabhadra’s version and TGS 2 represented by other three extant versions. See Zimmermann ( 2002 , pp. 12–17) 34 Concerning the bibliography of the Tathagatagarbha-s utra , see (1958) Kanzo sanyaku taisho nyoraizo kyo 漢 蔵 三 訳 対 照 如 来 蔵 経 Kyoto: Bukky obunka kenky ujo 仏 教 文 化 研究 所 35 Regarding this argument, see Zimmermann ( 2002 , p. 7) 36 Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 1, T. 666: 16.457 b 28-c 8 37 esa kulaputra dharmanam. dharmata/utpadad va tathagatanam anutpadad va sadaivaite sattvas tathagatagarbha iti /( Johnston 1950 , 73, pp. 11–12) 38 This is a citation from Zimmermann’s translation, see Zimmermann ( 2002 , pp. 103–6) 39 Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 1, T. 666: 16.459 a 10-13 40 This is a citation from Zimmermann’s translation, see Zimmermann ( 2002 , pp. 136–38) 41 Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 1, T. 666: 16.458 b 6-10 42 This is a citation from Zimmermann’s translation, see Zimmermann ( 2002 , p. 119) 43 Following Ichikawa, it can be assumed that some possible underlying terms are related to the classical Chinese term rulaizang 如 來 藏 through the extant Tibetan translation. They are: tathagatagarbha ; tathagatadharmata ; dharmata ; buddhatva ; sattva ; sugatakaya ; jinakaya ; buddhakaya ; tathagatagotra ; jinaputra ; tathagatatva . See Ichikawa ( 1982 ). 44 Concerning this, see King ( 1995 ). 45 As the newest research attempting to explain this problem in the context of Indian religions, see Jones ( 2020 a ). 46 This is based on Habata’s work, see Habata ( 2015 ). 47 Regarding this, see Takasaki ( 1974 ). 48 Concerning this statement, see Shimoda ( 1997 ); Michael Radich ( 2015 ). 49 Regarding this argument, see Kan o ( 2017 ). 50 According to one of my anonymous reviewers of this article, however, here the Tibetan version is invaluable: sangs rgyas kyi khams/dbyings very probably rendered buddhadhatu , and this corresponds to foxing in Dharmaksema’s and Faxian’s versions. I am grateful to my reviewer for this reminder 51 According to Radich, both Chinese translations of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra frequently feature terms such as foxing 佛 性 and rulaixing 如 來 性 . These terms may not obviously look like translations or equivalents for tathagatagarbha . See Michael Radich ( 2015 , p. 23) 52 According to Habata Hiromi, the Sanskrit original of Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra has come down to us only in fragments, while the underlying Sanskrit term of the Chinese term foxing 佛 性 and its intended meaning poses difficulties. Moreover, it is very likely that Dharmaksema preferred the word foxing in his translations, independent from the existing Sanskrit text. See Habata ( 2015 , pp. 176–96) 53 Second Bhavanakrama , Peking ed., No. 5311, A 49 a 8-49 b 3, sDe dge ed., No. 3916 Ki 45 a 5-6 54 Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 30, T. 374: 12.547 a 9-11 55 Regarding this, see Yoshimura ( 1974 , pp. 381–82) 56 Concerning Matsuda’s argument, see Matsuda ( 1988 , pp. 13–14) 57 Following one of my anonymous reviewers of this article, this material in the Da banniepan jing comes from content exclusive to that version, for which we have no known Indic basis. It is likely that Kamalasila here exhibits knowledge of Dharmaksema’s translation of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . The alternatives to this scenario are: (a) Kamalasila knew the Tibetan translation of Dharmaksema’s Chinese into Tibetan (Derge no. 119)—but this was only in the eleventh century. (b) Kamalasila knew an Indic version of the material translated by Dharmaksema. I think the alternative (b) is more likely, namely, that both Kamalasila and Dharmaksema were following a hitherto unknown Sanskrit version of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra 58 The Sanskrit passages in this article is based upon Johnston ( 1950 ), see Ratnagotravibhaga , ed. Edward Hamilton Johnston. Patna: The Bihar Research Society, 1950 59 Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun 究 竟 一 乘 宝 性 論 3, T. 1611: 31.828 b 1-5 60 Regarding this issue of the Ratnagotravibhaga , see Li ( 2016 ). 61 The Chinese version of the Ratnagotravibhaga is often pretty different to the Sanskrit and Tibetan. We cannot rule out that tathagatagotra was not seen by Ratnamati 62 Indeed, the fact remains that the Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun elsewhere clearly also used foxing to render Skt buddhadhatu , not only Skt gotra . In other words, both Dharmaksema and Ratnamati came to use the term foxing to translate a broader range of terms and phrases, including, needless to say, tathagatagarbha and buddhadhatu .

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 21 of 25 63 Mizutani analyzes the origin of icchantika in his work, see Mizutani ( 1965 ). 64 Concerning the relationship between icchantika and buddha-nature in East Asian Buddhism, see Tokiwa ( 1930 ). 65 Habata ( 2019 ) renders this sentence as the following German translation: “ Die Icchantikas, ‘eine heilvolle Tat nicht sehend’, ‘sieht’ (sehen) aber die ‘bo-se’ (d. h.) tadelhafte ‘angeklagte’ (Tat). ‘sukrta (gute Tat)’ bedeutet ‘Erwachen’ .” See Habata ( 2019 , p. 154) 66 This is my translation from the Sanskrit fragment Habata ( 2019 ) renders this section as the following German translation: “ Zu jener Zeit, wenn die Lebewesen, nachdem sie einmütig geworden sind, zum höchsten vollkommenen Erwachen erwachen werden, zu dieser Zeit wird der icchantika, auch wenn er böse ist, erwachen. Er sieht zu dieser Zeit das höchste Erwachen, (nämlich) die gute Tat nicht Erkenne so, du Erfahrener! Wessen Tat sieht er nicht? (Die Tat) des Tathagata. Zu jener Zeit (in der Zukunft), wenn alle Lebewesen, die in den Sam . sara gekom-men sind, zum höchsten vollkommenen Erwachen erwachen werden, zu dieser Zeit wird die Tat des Tathagata nicht erschöpft sein. (Trotzdem behauptet der Icchantika) so etwas wie ‘Nachdem der Buddha durch das vollständige Parinirvana vollkommen zur Ruhe gelangt ist, wird er nicht mehr anwesend sein, wie eine Lampe, wie ein Feuer aufgrund des Aufgebrauchtseins des Brennholzes.’ (Dies ist) das böse, tadelhafte und angeklagte Karma des Icchantika .” See Habata ( 2019 , pp. 157–58) 67 Matsuda ( 1988 , pp. 45–46). In addition, Habata Hiromi edited the extant Sanskrit fragments and provided a new translation in 2019, which is more in-depth than that of Matsuda. In Habata ( 2019 ), this passage is as the following: “iccham . tikah kalyanakrtam. na pasyatah. pasyati tu papam. ni- <n>di{si}tam. garhitam. ca yah. (r 6) sukr.[t](a)m. (b)o[dh]i[r] ity arthah. na vyaiti na gacchatity arthah. sandheti kalyanam ity arthah. samndhakarma visistakalyanam. kasya nagacchati bhadrakarma icchamtikasya nagac[ch]a(r 7)ti (kasya nagacchati kusa)- la{m . }satva iccham . tika iti [v]i(sruta) + + + + . . . + + . . . [k]im . m ulagam . s utrapratiksepah tasmad bhetavyam . s utrapratiksepako hi darunam . (v 1) ta(smad bibhyati pandit)[a] : dhira mahapathai sam . ti [s]am . [sk](a)[r](a) + + + + + . . . (na bibh)y(a)ti gaccham . ti goram . manavasam . tato nasadayam . ti durmedhasah. tam . ca<ndra>m uddha(v 2)ram . ta {;} iv(a) v[a]nara asadayam . ti [t]u [p]andita dhira nar[e]ndra iva mahapathe kah. krtam . na pasyati <iccham . tikah.> sam . sarakotyam sa na pasyati artham . bhasisye: sam . ksepasamu(v 3)ccayam . tasmad bhetavya[m pa]ramadaruna[t]* yada sar[vbasa]tva ekamanaso bh utva anuttaram . sam . myaksam . bodhim abhisam . - botsya<m . >te ; tada iccham . tika [p]a(v 4)po <’>pi sam . [bo]tsyate sa tada param . bodhi su{rvba}kr.(ta)[m . ] na pasyati ; evam . jam . nisva visarada kasya krtam . na pasyati ; tathagatasya yada sarvbas(a)(v 5)tva anuttaram . sam . myaksam . bodhim abhisam . botsya<m . >te sam . sara[g]a[t]a tada tathagatasya krtam . na vinaksya(t)[i t]ada parinirvbayatyam . tapa-rinirvbanena ; a[n]i(v 6)tyo buddho [bh]a[v]isyati ; [d]ipa ive[ndh]anak[s.]ayad agnir iva ta[dv]at* iccham . tikasya papa[m . ] karma garhitam . nindita(m . ) ca.” See Habata ( 2019 , pp. 154–58). Comparing Matsuda ( 1988 ) with Habata ( 2019 ), it seems that there is no significant difference here about the underlying expressions of the Chinese term foxing in Dharmaksema’s translation 68 This is based on Blum’s translation, see Blum ( 2013 ). 69 Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 9, T. 374: 12.418 b 28-c 26 70 It is difficult to find corresponding terms or phrases here in both Tibetan and Faxian’s translations. See Radich ( 2015 , p. 189) 71 Concerning this, see Chen ( 2004 , pp. 215–63) 72 According to the preface in the eighth fascicle of the Chu sanzang ji ji , the Sanskrit text related to the first ten fascicles of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema had been brought to China by Zhimeng 智 猛 (?–452). The “ Da niepan jing ji di shiqi ” 大 涅 槃 經 記 第 十七 in the eighth fascicle of the Chu sanzang ji ji states that: “ 此 《 大 涅 槃 經 》 初 十 巻 有 五 品 。 其 胡 本 是 東 方 道 人 智 猛 從 天 竺 將 來 , 暫 憩 高 昌 。 有 天 竺 沙 門 曇 無 讖 , 廣 学 博 見 , 道 俗 兼 綜 。 遊 方 觀 化 , 先 在 燉煌 。 河 西 王 宿 植 洪 業 , 素 心 冥 契 。 契 應 王 公 , 躬 統 士衆 。 西 定 燉煌 , 会 遇 其 人 , 神 解 悟 識 。 請 迎詣 州 , 安 止 內 苑 。 遣 使 高 昌 , 取 此胡 本 , 命 讖譯 出 .” (T. 2145: 55.60 a) That is, although Dharmaksema is considered the translator of the Da banniepan jing , this classical Chinese translation version and its Sanskrit original text are closely related to the Western Regions of China 73 As mentioned above, Chen argues that Dharmaksema in fact made no translation until 421. See Chen ( 2004 ). Although I quote some materials from the Gaoseng zhuan here, I accept Chen’s conclusion 74 Gaoseng zhuan 高 僧 傳 2, T. 2059: 50.336 b 1-6 75 Regarding the references to Dharmaksema and Zhimeng in the Gaoseng zhuan , see Naoumi ( 1986 ). 76 Da banniepan jing xuanyi 大 般 涅 槃 經 玄 義 2, T. 1765: 38.14 a 26-b 2 77 On the contrary, as mentioned in the first section, Chen Jinhua argues that Dharmaksema in fact made no translation until 421. See Chen ( 2004 ). 78 On the other hand, it is also important to realise the textual fluidity of Sanskrit original of the Mahaparinirvanamahasutra , in addition to the possibility of the translator’s creation or insertion. Accordingly, it looks that there is currently no clear witnesses to ascertain whether the translation term foxing is the translator’s faithful translation of the Sanskrit original, the translator’s creation, or his insertion 79 This is based on Blum’s translation, see Mark L Blum ( 2013 , p. 287) 80 Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 9, T. 374: 12.419 b 5-7 81 Foshuo da bannihuan jing 佛 説大 般 泥 洹 經 6, T. 376: 12.893 a 8-11 82 Concerning this paragraph, the Tibetan translation states: “ ’dod chen pa rnams la yang de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po yod mod kyi (Even the icchantika has tathagatagarbha .)/ ’on kyang g-yogs ma shin tu stug par ’dug go//dper na dar gyi srin bu rang nyid kyis kun nas dkris te/sgo ma btod pas phyir ’byung mi nus pa de bzhin du/de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po yang de’i las kyi

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 22 of 25 nyes pas ’dod chen pa’i khong nas dbyung bar mi nus so//de bas na ’khor ba’i mtha’ las byang chub kyi rgyu mi ’thob bo //” See Habata ( 2013 , p. 349) 83 Although it is likely that the original Sanskrit text of the Nihuan jing and that of the Da banniepan jing were not identical, as mentioned above, Dharmaksema came to use the term foxing to translate a broader range of terms and phrases. We also should not totally deny the element of the activity of translators 84 Dharmaksema’s version is closer to the Tibetan translation. In other words, Faxian’s rendering looks to be the exception on this matter 85 Concerning this argument, see ¯ Och o ( 1981 , p. 42) 86 The extant Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra currently available to us is just a part of the entire text. I must confess that there might be other examples that contradict to my argument in undiscovered portions of the Sanskrit original text 87 Takasaki points out this in his work, see Takasaki ( 1983 ). 88 Matsumoto points out this in his work, see Matsumoto ( 1989 ). 89 The remaining content of Dharmaksema’s translation is unique to that version, so it is difficult to assess how close it is to other versions of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra . See Radich ( 2019 a ) for the most recent discussion of this material. It looks like the Dharmaksema-unique material is something of a compilation of material from various sources, from Central Asia or plausibly the work of himself. I am grateful to one of my anonymous reviewers for reminding me of this 90 Concerning this, see Radich ( 2019 a ) and Jones ( 2020 a ). 91 To my knowledge, Christopher Jones is researching this issue in the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing . I look forward to his forthcoming publication. Regarding his previous research, see Christopher Jones ( 2016 ). 92 Regarding this, see Ono and Maruyama ( 1937 , pp. 486–87) 93 See Gaoseng zhuan 高 僧 傳 2, T. 2059: 50.344 a 18-26 94 See Kaiyuan shijiao lu 開 元 釋 教 錄 11, T. 2154: 55.591 a 2-5 95 See Gaoseng zhuan 高 僧 傳 3, T. 2059: 50.344 a 5-b 10 96 Although the example in this section does not reflect sangs rgyas kyi khams/dbyings , Tibetan versions of the works by Gunabhadra reflect sangs rgyas kyi khams/dbyings . There is cause to believe that he was translating buddhadhatu in some other places 97 See Gaoseng zhuan 高 僧 傳 2, T. 2059: 50.335 c 16-337 b 4 98 Ten fascicles of the Niepan yi ji 涅 槃 義記 , written by Huiyuan 慧 遠 of the Jingying temple, currently exist. This is the only extant complete commentary on the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaksema 99 Concerning this issue, see Fuse ( 1974 a , 1974 b ); Richard B Mather ( 1981 , pp. 155–73) 100 Da banniepan jing yi ji 大 般 涅 槃 經 義記 9, T. 1764: 37.873 b 27-c 4 101 Regarding Huiyuan’s interpretation of foxing , see Keng ( 2013 ). 102 Da banniepan jing shu 大 般 涅 槃 經 疏 22, T. 1767: 38.169 b 29-c 4 103 Concerning gotra in the context of this literature, see David Seyfort Ruegg ( 1976 ). 104 There is no agreement in the extant Sanskrit materials as to the exact nature of these bodhisattva stages. See Har Dayal ( 1932 ). 105 Regarding Zhiyi’s attitude toward Buddha-nature, see Paul Swanson ( 1990 ). 106 Lai notes this in his work, see Lai ( 1982 ). 107 For example, Sengrui 僧 叡 (378–444) stated that the Lotus S utra ’s concept of the Buddha’s omniscience anticipated the Da banniepan jing ( Nirvana S utra )’s idea of foxing (Buddha-nature) 108 Cf. Robert Sharf’s perspective remarks on the role played by translations in Chinese Buddhism. See Sharf ( 2001 , pp. 18–20) 109 It will be helpful if there is a comparative table of the term foxing and its equivalents Skt. or Tib. of the Tathagatagarbhas utra in this article. Concerning this, we can consult Zimmermann ( 2002 , pp. 50–52) 110 Since the extant Sanskrit fragments are just a small part of the entire text of the S utra and there were most probably various versions of Sanskrit originals of this S utra, it is difficult to approach a final conclusion currently 111 As hypothesized by Hodge ( 2012 ), these Sanskrit and Tibetan materials of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra show signs of redaction It is possible that instances of buddhadhatu were replaced with tathagatagarbha 112 It is a fact that we find supporting evidence in other Tibetan works where sangs rgyas kyi khams (Skt buddhadhatu ) corresponds to Chin foxing . Meanwhile, according to one of my anonymous reviewers, some Tibetan renderings were sometimes translated from Chinese, instead of Sanskrit texts. It might be still a complex issue even if we find a completed Sanskrit text due to their chronological relationship.

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 23 of 25 References Primary Sources T = Taisho shinsh u daizokyo . Takakusu Junjir o 高 楠 順 次 郎 and Watanabe Kaigyoku 渡 邊 海 旭 eds Taisho shinsh u daizokyo 大 正新 修 大蔵 経 [Buddhist Canon Compiled under the Taish o Era (1912–1926)]. 100 vols. 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[ CrossRef ] Dayal, Har. 1932 The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Feng, Chengjun 馮 承 鈞 . 1976. Tanwuchen yu suoyi daboniepan jing qianfen 曇 無 讖 与 所 訳 大 般 涅 槃 経 前 分 [Dharmaksema and the first half of his translation the Da banniepan jing]. In Xiyunanhai Shidi Kaozheng Lunzhu Huiji 西 域 南 海 史 地 考 証 論 著 匯 輯 [Articles Collection of the Studies on the History and Geography of Western and Southern China] . Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中 華 書 局 , pp. 244–48 Fuse, K ogaku 布 施 浩 岳 . 1974 a Nehansh u no Kenky u Kohen 涅 槃 宗 之 研究 ・ 後 篇 [A Study on the Nirvana Tradition Buddhism] . Tokyo: Kokusho kank okai 国 書 刊 行 , vol. 2 Fuse, K ogaku 布 施 浩 岳 . 1974 b Nehansh u no Kenky u Zenhen 涅 槃 宗 之 研究 ・ 前 篇 [A Study on the Nirvana Tradition Buddhism] . Tokyo: Kokusho kank okai 国 書 刊 行 会 , vol. 1 Habata, Hiromi 幅 田 裕 美 . 2009. The Mahaparinirvana-mahas utra Manuscripts in the Stein and Hoernle Collections (1). In British Library Sanskrit Fragments . The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University: Edited by Seishi Karashima and Klaus Wille. Volume II.1, Texts. Tokyo: pp. 551–88 Habata, Hiromi 幅 田 裕 美 . 2013 A Critical Edition of the Tibetan Translation of the Mahaparinirvanamahasutra . Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verla Habata, Hiromi 幅 田 裕 美 . 2015. Buddhadhatu, tathagatadhatu and tathagatagarbha in the Mahaparinirvana-mahas utra Horin 18: 176–96 Habata, Hiromi 幅 田 裕 美 . 2019 Aufbau und Umstrukturierung des Mahaparinirvanasutra . Untersuchungen zum Mahaparinirvanamahas utra unter Berücksichtigung der Sanskrit-Fragmente. Monographien zur indischen Archäologie, Kunst und Philologie 25. Bremen: Hempen Verla Hodge, Stephen. 2012. The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-s utra: The Text and Its Transmission. Original Presentation in Munich in 2010 and Revised Version in Hamburg in 2012. Available online: https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/ hodge/the-textual-transmisssion-of-the-mpnspdf (accessed on 1 June 2022) Ichikawa, Yoshiya 市 川 良 哉 . 1982. Nyoraiz o bussh o no shis o kenky u: Nyoraiz oky o niokeru kent o 如 来 蔵 ・ 仏 性 の 思 想 研究 『 如 来 蔵 経 』 における 検 討 Naradaigaku Kiyo 奈 良 大 学紀 要 10: 116 Johnston, Edward Hamilton, ed. 1950 Ratnagotravibhaga Mahanottaratantrasastra . Patna: The Bihar Research Society Jones, Christopher V. 2016. Beings, Non-Beings, and Buddhas: Contrasting Notions of tathagatagarbha in the An unatvap urnatvanirdesaparivarta and Mahabheri S utra Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 10: 53–84 Jones, Christopher V. 2020 a. Reconsidering the ‘Essence’ of Indian Buddha-Nature Literature Acta Asiatica 118: 57–78 Jones, Christopher V. 2020 b The Buddhist Self: On Tathagatagarbha and ¯ Atman . Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 24 of 25 Jones, Christopher V. 2021. Translating the Tirthika: Enduring ‘Heresy’ in Buddhist Studies. In Translating Buddhism: Historical and Contextual Perspectives . Edited by Alice Collett. Albany: SUNY Press, pp. 195–225 Kan o, Kazuo 加 納 和 雄 . 2017 Tathagatagarbhah. sarvasattvanam : Nehangy o niokeru nyoraiz o no fukug ogo kaishaku nikannsuru shiron: Tathagatagarbhah. sarvasattvanam — 涅 槃 経 における 如 来 蔵 の 複 合語 解 釈 にかんする 試 論 [ Tathagatagarbhah. sarvasattvanam : A Study on the compound term of Tathagatagarbha ] Critical Review for Buddhist Studies 22: 9–61 Kan o, Kazuo 加 納 和 雄 . 2020. Syntactic analysis of the term tathagatagarbha in Sanskrit fragments and multiple meanings of garbha in the Mahaparinirvanamahasutra Acta Asiatica 118: 17–40 Keng, Ching 耿 晴 . 2013. J oy oji eon niokeru bussyush o to bussh o 浄 影 寺 慧 遠 における 「 仏 種 姓 」 と 「 仏 性 」 . In Higashiajia Bukkyo Gakujutsu Ronsh u 東 アジア 仏 教 学 術 論 集 . Tokyo: T oy odaigaku t oy ogaku kenky ujo 東 洋 大 学 東 洋 学 研究 所 , pp. 185–201 King, Richard. 1995. Is ‘Buddha-Nature’ Buddhist? Doctrinal Tensions in the ´Srimala S utra: An Early Tathagatagarbha Text Numen 42: 1–20 Lai, Whalen. 1982. Sinitic Speculations on Buddha-Nature: The Nirvana School Philosophy East and West 32: 135–49. [ CrossRef ] Lai, Yonghai 頼 永 海 . 1988 Zhongguo Foxing Lun 中 國 佛 性 論 . Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe 上 海 人 民 出 版 Legge, James. 1886 A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hsien of his Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D 399–414) . Oxford: The Clarendon Press Lettere, Laura. 2020. The missing translator: A study of the biographies of the monk Baoyun 寶 雲 (376?–449). In Rivista Degli Studi Orientali . Nuova Serie 1: 259–74. Rome: Sapienza Universit à Di Roma Instituto Italiano Di Studi Orientali Li, Zijie 李 子 捷 . 2016. Kuky o ichij o h osh o ron no shinnyosetsu no ichi k osatsu: Higashiajia Bukky o niokeru shinnyo rikai to no kanren wo ch ushin ni 『 究 竟 一 乗 宝 性 論 』 の 真 如 説 の 一 考 察 — 東 アジア 仏 教 における 真 如 理 解 との 関 連 を 中 心 に [A study on the theory of tathata in the Ratnagotravibhaga : With a focus on the relationship with the understanding on tathata in the East Asian Buddhism] Bukkyogaku 佛 教 学 [Buddhist Studies] 57: 37–62 Liu, Ming Wood. 1982. Madhyamika and Yogacara Interpretations of the Buddhist-nature Concept in Chinese Buddhism Philosophy East and West 35: 171–93. [ CrossRef ] Liu, Mingwood 廖 明 活 . 2008 Zhongguo Foxing Sixiang de Xingcheng he Kaizhan 中 國 佛 性 思 想 的 形 成 和 開 展 . Taipei: Wenchin Press 文 津 出 版 社 Mather, Richard B. 1981. The Impact of the Nirvana Sutra in China. In Literature of Belief, Sacred Scripture and Religious Experience . Edited by Neal E. Lambert. Salt Lake City: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, pp. 155–73 Matsuda, Kazunobu 松 田 和 信 . 1988 Indosho Toshokan Shozo Ch uoajia Shutsudo Daijonehangyo Bonbon Dankensh u インド 省図書 館 所 蔵 中 央 アジア 出 土 大 乗 涅 槃 経 梵 文 断 簡 集 [Indian Province’s Sanskrit Texts Collection of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-Sutra Found in Central Asia] . Tokyo: T oy o bunko 東 洋 文 庫 Matsumoto, Shir o 松 本 史 朗 . 1989. Nyoraiz o shis o ha bukky o ni arazu 如 来 蔵 思 想 は 仏 教 にあらず [The thought of Tathagatagarbha is not Buddhism]. In Matsumoto Shiro, Engi to k u: Nyoraizo Shiso Hihan 縁 起 と 空 — 如 来 蔵 思 想 批 判 [Arising and Emptiness: A Critique to the Thought of Tathagatagarbha] . Tokyo: Daiz o shuppan 大蔵 出 版 Matsumoto, Shir o 松 本 史 朗 . 2021 Bukkyo Shiso Hihan 仏 教 思 想 批 判 [Critique of Buddhist Thought] . Kyoto: H oz okan 法 蔵 館 Mizutani, K osei 水 谷 幸 正 . 1965. Issendai k o 一 闡 提 攷 [A Study on Icchantika] Bukkyodaigaku Kenky ukiyo 佛 教 大 学 研究 紀 要 [Journal of Bukkyo University] 40: 63–107 Naoumi, Gentetsu 直 海 玄 哲 . 1986. K os oden seiritsuj o no mondaiten: Donmushin no jirei wo t oshite 高 僧 伝 成 立 上 の 問 題 点 — 曇 無 讖 の 事 例 を 通 して [On the Establishment of the Gaoseng zhuan : With a focus on Dharmaksema] Toyoshien 東 洋 史 苑 [History of Asia] 26–27: 63–82 ¯ Och o, Enichi 横 超 慧 日 . 1981 Nehangyo: Nyoraijoju to shitsuubussho 涅 槃 経 — 如 来 常 住 と 悉 有 仏 性 [The Mahaparinirvana-Mahasutra: Permanent Existence of Tathagata and Buddha Nature] . Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten 平 楽 寺 書 店 ¯ Ono, H od o 大 野 法 道 . 1954 Daijo Kai Kyo no Kenky u 大 乗 戒 経 の 研究 [A Study on the Mahayanist Precept Sutras] . Tokyo: Ris o Sha 理 想 社 Ono, Genmy o 小 野 玄 妙 , and Takao Maruyama 丸 山 孝 雄 , eds. 1937 Bussho Kaisetsu Daijiten 佛 書 解 説大 辭 典 . Tokyo: Dait o shuppan 大 東 出 版 , vol. 7 Radich, Michael. 2015 The Mahaparinirvana-Mahasutra and the Emergence of Tathagatagarbha Doctrine. Hamburg Buddhist Studies 5 . Edited by Michael Zimmermann. Hamburg: Hamburg University Press Radich, Michael. 2019 a. Reading the Writing on the Wall: Sengchou’s Cave at Xiaonanhai, Early Chinese Buddhist Meditation, and Unique Portions of Dharmaksema’s Mahaparinirvana-mahas utra Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 42: 515–632 Radich, Michael. 2019 b. Was the Mahaparinirvana-sutra T 7 translated by ‘Faxian’?: An Exercise in the Computer-Assisted Assessment of Attributions in the Chinese Buddhist Canon Hualin International Journal of Buddhist Studies 2: 229–79. [ CrossRef ] Ruegg, David Seyfort. 1976. The Meanings of the Term Gotra and the Textual History of the Ratnagotravibhaga Bulletin of School of Oriental and African Studies 39: 341–63. [ CrossRef ] Sat o, Ichir o 佐 藤 一 郎 . 1998. Jinseiron o megutte 人性 論 をめぐって Cy ugokugaku Kenky u 中 国 学 研究 17: 14–23 Sharf, Robert H. 2001 Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism: A Reading of the Treasure Store Treatise . Honolulu: Univeristy of Hawai’i Press Shimoda, Masahiro 下 田 正 弘 . 1997 Nehangyo no Kenky u: Daijokyoten no Kenky uhoho Shiron 涅 槃 経 の 研究 — 大 乗 経 典 の 研究 方法 試 論 [A Study on the Mahaparinirvana-Mahasutra: An Approach to the Studies on Great Nirvana Sutra] . Tokyo: Shunj usha 春秋社 Strickmann, Michel. 2002 Chinese Magical Medicine . Edited by Bernard Faure. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Rebin, Chih, Koza, Reno, Xun, John, Minoru, Honor, Griffiths, Keenan, Ien]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 619 25 of 25 Swanson, Paul L. 1990. T’ien-t’ai Chih-i’s Concept of Threefold Buddha Nature: A Synergy of Reality, Wisdom, and Practice. In Buddha Nature: A Festschrift in Honor of Minoru Kiyota . Edited by Paul J. Griffiths and John P. Keenan. Reno: Buddhist Books International, pp. 171–80 Swanson, Paul L. 1993. “Zen Is Not Buddhism” Recent Japanese Critiques of Buddha-Nature Numen 40: 115–49 Takasaki, Jikid o 高崎 直 道 . 1974 Nyoraizo Shiso no Keisei 如 来 蔵 思 想 の 形 成 [The Establishment of Tathagatagarbha Doctrine] . Tokyo: Shunj usha 春秋社 Takasaki, Jikid o 高崎 直 道 . 1983. Nyoraiz o shis o no rekishi to bunken 如 来 蔵 思 想 の 歴 史 と 文 献 [The History and Literature of the Thought of Tathagatagarbha]. In Koza Daijobukkyo Dairokkan Nyoraizo Shiso 講座 ・ 大 乗 仏 教 第 六 巻 ・ 如 来 蔵 思 想 [Series of Mahayana Buddhism. The Thought of Tathagatagarbha] . Tokyo: Shunj usha 春秋社 , vol. 6 Takasaki, Jikid o 高崎 直 道 . 1987. Daij o no daihatsunehangy o bonbon danken nitsuite: Bongado rebin ky oju no kingy o niyosete 大 乗 の 大 般 涅 槃 経 梵 文 断 簡 について — ボンガ ー ド ＝ レヴィン 教 授 の 近業 によせて [A Study on the Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvana-mahasutra ] Bukkyogaku 仏 教 学 [Buddhist Studies] 22: 1–20 Tokiwa, Daij o 常 盤 大 定 . 1930 Bussho no Kenky u 仏 性 の 研究 [A Study on Buddha Nature] . Tokyo: Heigo Shuppannsha 丙 午 出 版 社 Yoshimura, Sh uki 芳 村 修 基 . 1974 Indo Daijobukkyo Shiso Kenky u インド 大 乗 仏 教 思 想 研究 [A Study on Indian Mahayana Buddhist Thought] . Kyoto: Hyakkaen 百 華苑 Zhang, Xun 章 巽 . 1985 Faxianzhuan Jiaozhu 法 顯 傳 校 注 . Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe 上 海 古 籍 出 版 社 Zimmermann, Michael. 2002 A Buddha Within: The Tathagatagarbhas utra: The Earliest Exposition of the Buddha-Nature Teaching in India Tokyo: The International Institue for Advanced Buddhology in Soka University.