Paramārtha’s Ultimate Truth and the Development of Chinese...

[Full title: Paramārtha’s Ultimate Truth and the Development of Chinese Buddhism’s Ultimate Truth]

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Citation: Wang, Sijia, and Huanhuan He. 2022. Paramartha’s Ultimate Truth and the Development of Chinese Buddhism’s Ultimate Truth Religions 13: 17. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/rel 13010017 Academic Editor: David Peter Lawrence Received: 19 September 2021 Accepted: 22 December 2021 Published: 24 December 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Copyright: © 2021 by the authors Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommonsorg/licenses/by/ 4.0/) religions Article Paramartha’s Ultimate Truth and the Development of Chinese Buddhism’s Ultimate Truth Sijia Wang 1, * and Huanhuan He 2 1 Department of Philosophy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China 2 Buddhist Resource and Research Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; huan 2015@zju.edu.cn * Correspondence: sijiawang 86@zju.edu.cn Abstract: This paper discusses the development of ideas of the ultimate in the thought of Chinese Buddhism in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The concept of ultimate truth is, along with that of conventional truth, a core concept in Mahayana Buddhism. During the Sui Dynasty, Chinese Buddhism developed the unique perspective of the Three Truths, the foundation for which was formed during the Southern and Northern Dynasties. This begins with Jie jie Jing 解 節 經 (in full, Foshuo Jiejie Jing 佛 說 解 節 經 ) by Paramartha (499–569), which is a partial translation of Sam . dhinirmocanas utra and presents the theory of ultimate truth ( paramartha ) to Chinese Buddhists. Through a comparison of Jiejie Jing with other Chinese and Tibetan translations of Sam . dhinirmocana-s utra , we establish Paramartha’s thoughts on the ultimate. The relationship between Paramartha’s thought on the ultimate and the development of the Three Truths is evaluated in a comparison of Paramartha’s thoughts on ultimate truth with the thinking of nearly contemporary Chinese monks Keywords: Jiejie Jing 解 節 經 ; Paramartha; ultimate truth; three truths 1. Introduction The ultimate (Skt paramartha , Tib don dam pa ) is a core concept in Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjuna compares ultimate and conventional truth to explain the emptiness and origination by dependence ( Hirakawa 1974–1979 , vol. 2, pp. 42–45). The Yogacara school developed the three natures of phenomena ( trisvabhava ) based on the two truths The ultimate is constantly being explained. After Buddhism was introduced into China, Chinese monks gradually developed a unique conception of the ultimate, that is, the Three Truths: the ultimate, the conventional, and the primary meaning of the middle way 中 道 第 一 義 諦 The Three Truths, first developed during the Sui Dynasty, was a unique outgrowth of Chinese Buddhism, a novel perspective on the ultimate Its direct sources were M ulamadhyamakakarika , Humane King Sutra, and other sutras and treasures. However, its motivation was the heated discussion among many monks in the Southern Dynasty regarding the relationship between nirvana , thusness, and the ultimate and conventional Paramartha was a great Indian translator who lived during the Liang and Chen dynasties. Beginning in the Chen dynasty, his works were cited by many Chinese monks. Paramartha was also believed to be associated with the Sinicization of Buddhism Jie jie Jing 解 節 經 ( Jie jie ) is a partial translation of Sam . dhinirmocanas utra (SNS) by Paramartha The Jie jie is largely concerned with the characteristics of the ultimate In Jie jie , Paramartha chose a method quite distinct from that of Xuanzang ( 玄 奘 , 600/602–64) and Bodhiruci ( 菩 提 流 支 , 道 晞 or 道 希 , ?–527), which used several synonyms to translate the word “ paramartha (the ultimate)”, such as zhenshi 真 實 and zhenru 真 如 . This may reflect Paramartha’s unique view of the ultimate This paper analyzes the text of Jie jie to identify Paramartha’s thinking on the ultimate and compare it with the thoughts of Chinese monks at the same time so as to investigate the foundation of the Three Truths in the Southern Dynasty and the relationship between Paramartha and the Sinicization of Buddhism Religions 2022 , 13 , 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel 13010017 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 2 of 14 2. The Overview on the Text of Jie jie Jie jie is a Buddhist scripture on the characteristics of ultimate truth. Paramartha completed it in 561 ( Paul 1982 , p. 57; X 369, pp. 179 b 5–b 7). According to Further Biographies of Eminent Monks ( Xu gaoseng zhuan 續 高 僧傳 ) 1 and the postscript to the VajracchedikaPrajñaparamita S utra translated by Paramartha ( Jingang bore boluomi jing 金 剛 般若 波 羅 蜜 經 ) 2 , when he planned to transfer to a larger ship bound for India, Paramartha was invited by the prefect of Liang’an County 梁 安 郡 3 , Wang Fangshe ( 王 方 賒 or 王 方 奢 ), to translate Buddhist texts and teach Buddhism at Jianzao Monastery 建 造 寺 . Paramartha translated Jie jie to provide a text to characterize ultimate truth. Following this, Paramartha was asked to translate Vajracchedika Prajñaparamita S utra in 562. Additionally, he also wrote some volumes of commentaries on these sutras According to A Commentary on the Samdhinirmocanasutra ( Jie shenmi jing shu 解 深 密 經 疏 ) by W ˘onch’ ˘uk ( 圓 測 , 613–696) and The Record of the Three Treasures throughout Successive Dynasties ( Lidai sanbao ji 歷 代三 寶 記 ), Paramartha carefully selected four chapters from a longer Sanskrit version of SNS for translation 4 . However, without further evidence, we still do not know whether there is a preexisting independent Sanskrit original equivalent in length to Jie jie , nor do we know the supplementary relationship between Jie jie and other translations The textual contents are not very different from those of two other Chinese translations of SNS, namely, Bodhiruci’s Shenmi jietuo jing 深 密 解 脫 經 ( Shenmi jietuo ; T 675,) and Xuanzang’s Jie shenmi jing 解 深 密 經 ( Jie shenmi ; T 676). However, the title, prologue, and epilogue of Jie jie differ from those two Chinese translations and Tibetan translation. A brief analysis will be made below 2.1. Analysis on the Title of Jie Jie Paramartha analyzes the possible meanings of the title in his commentary of Jie jie His analysis, as quoted by W ˘onch’ ˘uk, is given below: “In the word jiejie 解 節 , according to Paramartha’s commentary, jie 解 means interpretation, while jie 節 means a hard joint 堅 結 . Hard 堅 means tough and solid. Joint 結 means to knot. For instance, the knot of a tree or human bone is both hard and tightly bound. The extremely profound and secret meaning that is revealed in this sutra is hard to attain, hard to interpret. Ordinary being and novice bodhisattvas cannot even understand it. Therefore, this meaning is said to be hard and joint. [However,] this sutra can interpret [it]. Therefore, [this sutra] is named jiejie . [ 言 解 節 者 ， 如 真 諦記 ， 解 即 解 釋 ， 節 謂 堅 結 。 堅 是 堅 固 ， 結 縛 楯 ， 如 木 節 及 人 骨 節 ， 並 有 堅 固 ， 拘 結 纏縛 。 此 經 所 明 甚 深 密 義 ， 難 可 通達 、 難 可 解 釋 ， 故 非 凡 夫 、 新 行 菩 薩 所 能 解 了 ， 故 說 此 義 名 為 堅 結 ； 此 經 能 解 ， 故 名 解 節 。 ” (X 369, pp. 179 b 15–b 19)] This quote indicates that Paramartha interprets sam . dhi to be something extremely firm and difficult to be realized. This leads to his choice of translation as a “joint ( jie 節 ).” This is a literal translation as well as a metaphor The four Chinese translations of SNS, namely, Gunabhadra’s Xiangxu jietuo (T 678, T 679) 5 , Bodhiruci’s Shenmi jietuo (T 675), Paramatha’s Jiejie , and Xuanzang’s Jie shenmi (T 676), all have very different titles. The length of the four Chinese translations is shown in Table 1 . Much has been written about these differences 6

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 3 of 14 Table 1. The chapters of four Chinese translations of the SNS SNS Prologue C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 C.6 C.7 C.8 C.9 C.10 Xuangxu jietuo C.1 C.2 Shenmi jietuo prologue C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 C.6 C.7 C.8 C.9 C.10 C.11 Jie jie C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 Jie shenmi prologue C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 C.6 C.7 C.8 Taking this previous research into account, it appears that jie 解 is more appropriate than jietuo to translate nirmocana . In the epilogue, Buddha says that this sutra is a sutra of the explicit meaning ( liaoyi 了 義 ), 7 and Jie jie directly presents profound and subtle correct teachings of the Buddha. Thus, nirmocana means interpretation, that is, jie 解 Paramartha translates sam . dhi as jie 節 , which expresses the same meaning as shenmi . The word sam . dhiniromocana appears twice in the body of SNS, once as the name of a bodhisattva in Chapter 1 of Jie jie and again when the questioner asks the Buddha to describe the main idea of this sutra in the epilogue. Paramartha translates the word sam . dhi in both instances as jie 節 8 , while Xuanzang translates it as shenmi 9 . Thus, Xuanzang’s translation style is a precise free translation, while Paramartha’s version is more literal. This may be because Paramartha follows in the steps of Kumarajiva to a certain extent ( Keng 2009 , pp. 158–59), whose translation method was more accommodating of the realities of the Chinese language, whereas Xuanzang is precise to the point that the readers need to read the Sanskrit alongside the Chinese to make sense of the text Thus, the literal meaning of the title for Jie jie is “The Interpreting of the Meaning Joints” 10 , as Jie jie interprets the characters of ultimate truth, which is profound and subtle 2.2. The Prologue and Epilogue of Jie jie According to W ˘onch’ ˘uk’s commentary, Paramartha translates Jie jie to clarify the characteristics of the ultimate truth. This is why he only translates four chapters from SNS. He completes this sutra with the three complete parts—the prologue is placed within the Chapter of Non-duality and the epilogue is placed at the end of the Chapter of Single Taste 11 . We carefully analyze the prologue and epilogue of Jie jie and compare them with those of Shenmi jietuo , Jie shenmi , and the Tibetan translation 2.2.1. The Jie Jie Prologue and Prologues in Different Places and for Different Audiences The prologues of Shenmi jietuo and Jie shenmi , and the Tibetan translation are very similar, and they consist of three main parts or topics: the immeasurable or ornament of the palace where the Buddha teaches, the merit of the Buddha, and the merit of the word-listeners (Skt ´sravaka ) and the bodhisattvas who attended the assembly However, the prologue of Jie jie is quite different. It is shorter, and the main content is that the Buddha abides in Grdhrakuta of Rajagrha with Bodhisattvas, Buddhist monks, Buddhist nuns, laymen, and laywomen. The content of the Buddha’s speech on earth may be the same as his speech in the Pure Land, but his audience is different We believe that the prologue of Jie jie was created by Paramartha himself, rather than a translation of the original SNS prologue. This conclusion follows from a consideration of Paramartha’s circumstances. When Paramartha passed through Liang‘an County, he was invited to translate sutras and teach Mahayana Buddism Jie jie may have been developed as material for his lectures. Paramartha lists bhiksu s, bhiksuni s, upasaka s, and upasika s as all disciples ( catasrah. parsadah ) and uses the analogy of all four disciples to encourage the listeners in Liang’an County to strengthen their faith in Mahayana Buddhism Moreover, the prologue of Jie jie is structurally similar to that of Wushang yi jing 無 上 依 經 (in full, Foshuo wushang yi jing 佛 說 無 上 依 經 , T 669), translated by Paramartha in 557 12 Unfortunately, because the Sanskrit original of Wushang yi jing is lost, we cannot identify the relationship between the prologue to Wushang yi jing and that of Jie jie .

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 4 of 14 2.2.2. The Epilogue of Jie Jie Is a Synthesis of the Epilogues of the Last Four Chapters of SNS The main function of an epilogue of a text such as Jie jie is to highlight the main themes of the foregoing scripture and declare the merits and virtues of the recipients. The epilogue of Jie jie mainly consists of the audience’s questions and the Buddha’s answers. The questioner is the Avalokite´svara, rather than the questioners who appear in the main text of Jie jie The Avalokitesvara is the questioner of Chapter 9 of SNS. Perhaps because the questioner is the same, Ui Hakuju believes that the epilogue of Jie jie is equivalent to the epilogue of the chapter of The Questions of Avalokitesvara of Shenmi jietuo (T 675, pp. 685 a 03–a 08), the chapter of The Stages and the Perfections of Jie shenmi (T 676, pp. 708 a 29–b 06), and Xuangxu jietuo di boluomi liaoyi jing (T 678, pp. 718 a 18–a 21, Ui [1930] 1965 , p. 83). However, a closer examination of the epilogue of Jie jie reveals that it also contains the contents of other chapters’ epilogues In the epilogue, Jie jie is described as having three themes: the correct teaching on explicit meaning, the correct teaching on ultimate objects and cognition, and the correct teaching on which the 10 stages and perfections depend (T 677, pp. 714 c 04–c 06). The epilogues of the last four chapters of SNS repeatedly emphasize that this sutra describes the teachings of the explicit meaning, which are the same as that of Jie jie . The correct teaching on which the 10 stages and perfections depend is the main theme of Chapter 9 of SNS The fruits gained by the participants after attending the assembly in Jie jie also constitute a synthesis of the last four chapters of SNS. For instance, some Bodhisattvas received patient acceptance based on the awareness of the non-arising of phenomena in the state of the non-arising of dharmas (T 677, pp. 714 c 07–c 08). This is what the Bodhisattvas achieved in Chapter 7 of SNS (T 675, pp. 674 a 27–a 28; T 676, pp. 697 c 05–c 06) Moreover, on the evidence of Xuanzang’s translation and the Tibetan translation, SNS does not have a final epilogue. Takahashi argues that Shenmi jietuo does have a form of final epilogue ( Takahashi 2014 , p. 72), but the form of that document is different from the epilogue seen for Jie jie 2.3. Different verses in Chapter 4 of Jie Jie To emphasize his teachings, Bhagavan delivers some verses at the end of each chapter Chapter 4 of Jie jie contains one more verse than the equivalent text in other Chinese and Tibetan translations, consisting of four pada s: “[It] reverses the currents of life and death [It] is subtle, profound, and hard to be realized. Covered by lust and ignorance, ordinary people cannot realize [it].” 13 What is being referred here to is not specified, but it is likely to be the ultimate. These verses are Paramartha’s own composition, added to the end of Chapter 4 to highlight that the ultimate truth is extremely difficult to be realized for ordinary people However, a similar verse can be found in Chapter 6 of The Synthetic Edition of the Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra ( Hebu jinguangming jing 合 部 金 光 明 經 , T 664): “(It) reverses the currents of life and death. (It) is very profound, subtle, and hard to be realized. The lust has covered the sentient beings. [The sentient beings are] stupid, blind and in darkness, thus, cannot realize [it]” 14 Chapter 6 of The Synthetic Edition of the Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra , the Chapter of the Dharani on the Stage of the Highest Purity ( Tuoluoni zuijingdi pin 陀 羅 尼 最 淨 地 品 ), is ascribed to Paramartha’s translations. However, some scholars believe that these chapters were most likely composed in China ( Radich 2014 , 2015 ). According to Further Biographies of Eminent Monks and The Record of the Three Treasures throughout Successive Dynasties , Jie jie was translated later than the Suvarnaprabhasa sutra . It is striking that similar verses appear in two very different sutras, leading to the supposition that Paramartha composed them himself.

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 5 of 14 3. Paramartha’s Thoughts on Ultimate Truth The main subject of Jie jie is the characteristics of the ultimate truth. The ultimate truth is ineffable and nondual. It transcends the realm of thought and feeling. The relationship between the ultimate truth and conditioned states of being transcends sameness and difference. Ultimate truth relates to one taste in all compounded things However, Bodhiruci, Paramartha, and Xuanzang give different translations for the term ultimate truth. Basically, Xuanzang translates the ultimate as shengyi 勝 義 , while Bodhiruci translates it as diyi yi 第 一 義 . Paramartha uses several words to translate ultimate truth The postscript to the Vajracchedika Prajñaparamita S utra mentions that Paramartha was already quite familiar with the Chinese while working on that text 15 . The different terms used to translate “ultimate truth” may reflect Paramartha’s different views on this truth Therefore, we investigate Paramartha’s translations of the ultimate in Jie jie and his other works, as well to summarize his thoughts on ultimate truth 3.1. Statistics Data on the Translations of "Ultimate Truth" in Jie jie In Jie jie , Paramartha flexibly uses several synonyms to translate “ paramartha (the ultimate)”. Paramartha mainly used “true reality ( zhenshi 真 實 )” to translate paramartha 23 times. Here, “truth zhen 真 ” corresponds to parama , while the “reality shi 實 ” corresponds to artha . Since “truth” and “reality” are used as short forms of “true reality,” “the characteristic of true reality ( zhenshi xiang 真 實 相 )” is also translated as the “true characteristic ( zhenxiang 真 相 )” and “real characteristic ( shixiang 實 相 )”, and these terms appear four and five times, respectively In addition, not all that is identified as true reality in Jie jie should be understood to translate ultimate truth. In Chapter 1, the “true reality” in “Only this is true and everything else is false ( ci shi zhenshi, yi ci feizhen 此 是 真 實 , 異 此 非 真 )” is a translation of “true” whose corresponding Tibetan translation is bden pa and the original Sanskrit word is satya , appearing a total of four times (T 677, pp. 712 a 19–b 08) Feizhen means “false,” and its Tibetan counterpart is brdzun pa Some other words are also used by Paramartha to translate the ultimate, as follows: “true theory ( zhenshi li 真 實 理 )” appears once, “real characteristic of dharmas ( zhufa shixiang 諸 法 實 相 )” once, “the dharma of the reality ( zhenshi zhi fa 真 實 之 法 )” is seen twice, “the theory of thusness ( zhenru zhi li 真 如 之 理 )” is found once, “superior truth ( shengzhen 勝 真 )” appears twice, and “the theory of truth (zhenshi zhi li 真 實 之 理 )” is found once It is worth noting that Paramartha used the “thusness ( zhenru 真 如 , or ruru 如如 )” to translate “the characteristic of ultimate truth”, “ultimate truth”, and “truth” a total of 17 times. In the Northern and Southern Dynasties, “thusness” was almost fully established as a translation of the Sanskrit word bh utatathata or tathata , meaning “the way things are” Although this closely resembles the ultimate truth in content, it places more emphasis on the true state of things as they are than on the truth directly realized by the sages Moreover, in Chapter 4 of Jie jie , the word “the thusness” is omitted seven times, while "the ultimate” is omitted once, and “the selflessness of dharmas” is omitted once. The original text is as follows. By comparing with other translations, I use () to indicate the supplement of the omitted part: If the practicing monks had completely realized the thusness of one aggregate, the selflessness of persons and dharmas (that is the ultimate), they do not need to have a meditative insight into the thusness (, the ultimate and the selflessness of persons and dharmas) which contained in the rest of aggregates one by one. If [the practicing monks] had completely realized the thusness (, the ultimate) and the selflessness of persons and dharmas in twelve sense fields, twelve links of dependent arising, four sustenance, four truths, the realms, four bases of mindfulness, the correct abandonings, the supernatural abilities, the faculties, the powers, the factors of enlightenment and the factors of noble eightfold path,

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 6 of 14 [they] do not need to have a meditative insight into the thusness (, the ultimate and the selflessness of persons and dharmas) 16 Just as the aggregates were of mutually different characters, as twelve sense fields, twelve links of dependent arising, four sustenance, four truths, the realms, four bases of mindfulness, the correct abandonings, the supernatural abilities, the faculties, the powers, the factors of enlightenment and the factors of noble eightfold path were of mutually different characters, if the thusness of the dharmas (the ultimate and) the selflessness of persons and dharmas were of mutually different characters, then the thusness of the dharmas, (the ultimate, and) the selflessness of dharmas cannot be the ultimate, they would be produced from causes. If they were produced from causes, they would be compounded. If they were compounded, it would be necessary to search for another ultimate from them. Subh uti, since (the thusness,) the ultimate ( and the selflessness of persons and dharmas) was (/were) not produced from causes, it was (/they were) not compounded, not that which was not the ultimate, and it is not necessary to search for another ultimate from them. Why is this? These dharmas were permanent and eternal. Whether a Tathagata appears in the world or not, the reality, the reality realm and the dharma abiding all abide eternally. Therefore, Subhuti, you should understand that the ultimate is of one universal taste everywhere 17 3.2. Paramartha’s Thought on the Ultimate Truth in Jie Jie: The Thusness Is Equal to the Ultimate Truth We summarize Paramartha’s thoughts on the ultimate based on the statistics of the translation terms in Jie jie and compare them to Paramartha’s other works As for the three different Chinese translations of SNS, we can certainly regard them as a means of investigating the Indian original to understand the teaching of Budhha. However, we can also read the texts in the context of the translated language, find out the differences between them, and try to understand what the translators are trying to tell the Chinese audience. As noted, Paramartha’s choice of translation terms for the ultimate is accurate and flexible. Thus, when Paramartha focused on translating the ultimate with a single word, the word could be related to the content Paramartha believes that the thusness is the ultimate, and the gain of the sight of the thusness is the prerequisite for attaining nirvana . In Chapter 3 of Jie jie , which describes the transcendence of sameness and difference, Bhagavan uses reduction to absurdity to argue that the characteristic of the ultimate and conditioned states of being transcend sameness and difference (T 677, pp. 713 a 17–b 23). If the ultimate and conditioned states of being were not different, then all ordinary beings would have insight into truth, and they would achieve full, perfect enlightenment. If the ultimate and conditioned states of being were different, the saints who previously gained insight into truth would not now be free from two kinds of bindings, bindings of all marks and bindings of the debilitative afflictive, nor would they be able to realize full, perfect enlightenment. Because no ordinary beings have realized full, perfect enlightenment, saints who have gained insight into truth have become free from two kinds of bindings and realized full, perfect enlightenment, so the assumption that the ultimate and conditioned states of being are the same or different is not true 18 In this passage, Paramartha uses “thusness” to translate both “the ultimate truth” and “the truth” 19 to explain the relationship between “thusness” and the attainment of the supreme calm of extinction of all desires ( Wushang ruan niepan 無 上 如 安 涅 槃 , T 677, pp. 713 a 19, a 26–27), that is, realizing the thusness is a prerequisite for the attainment of the supreme calm of extinction of all desires Paramartha believes that the thusness equals the ultimate and associates the thusness with the ultimate, the reality, and the reality realm. We do not take the aforementioned omissions of Chapter 4 as a mistranslation of Paramartha’s own, but rather as a reflection of Paramartha’s view that the thusness and the ultimate are synonymous. In Chapter 4, Buddha says that once the practicing monks have realized the thusness of one aggregate,

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 7 of 14 the selflessness of persons and dharmas, then they need not bother to have a meditative insight into the thusness, which is contained in each of the remaining aggregates (T 677, pp. 714 a 29–b 05), because the thusness is the ultimate truth, which is of one universal taste. Through permanence, Paramartha equates the thusness with the ultimate, the selflessness of persons, the reality, and the reality realm. Moreover, in his work, Shiba kong lun 十 八 空 論 , Paramartha interprets the seven kinds of thusness mentioned in SNS, and he proposes that the seven kinds of thusness are the ultimate 20 The creation of Shiba kong lun was earlier than the translation of Jie jie 21 When he later translated Jie jie , Paramartha maintained the continuity of his thought, which regarded the thusness as equivalent to the ultimate Paramartha believes that the ultimate is the aboriginally pure mind covered by lust and ignorance. It is not specified, but the subject of the extra verse at the end of Chapter 4 should be the ultimate. These four pada s emphasize that the ultimate cannot be realized by common people because it is covered with greed and ignorance Madhyantavibhaga-bhasya, translated by Paramartha (Zhongbian fenbie lu 中 邊 分別 論 , T 1599), proposes that the mind is innately pure but polluted by objective things 22 In Paramartha’s other compositions, similar thoughts are seen 23 This seems to imply a tendency to the Tathagatagarbha in Paramartha’s thought on the ultimate 3.3. Comparison with the Thoughts of Nearly Contemporary Chinese Monks Paramartha’s view, the thusness equals the ultimate, is different from that of Chinese monks who were his contemporaries. Baoliang ( 寶 亮 , 444–509) believes that the thusness lies beyond the two truths, both the ultimate and the conventional Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty once directed more than a dozen Chinese scholarmonks to comment on the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra , and they created a commentary entitled The Collection of the Interpretations on the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra ( Dabo niepan jing jijie 大 般 涅 槃 經 集 解 , T 1763). According to the records of critics such as Jizang ( 吉 藏 , 549–623) and Huijun ( 慧 均 or Junzheng 均 正 ) in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, there were many Chinese monks in the Southern Dynasty who put forward different views on the principal cause of Buddha nature 24 . Baoliang was among the most representative monks Baoliang believes that the thusness is the principal cause of Buddha nature. He proposes that “the wonderful substance of the consciousness ( shenming miaoti 神 明 妙 體 )” is the thusness, namely, the way things really are. 25 Moreover, “the element of the consciousness ( shenming fa 神 明 法 )” or “the wonderful substance of the consciousness” that is composed of the two truths, the ultimate and the conventional, is the principal cause of Buddha nature 26 In Baoliang’s opinion, it is not correct to consider the conditioned existence of the world to be identical with conventional truth, and emptiness as ultimate truth. Instead, “the wonderful substance of the consciousness,” that is, the thusness, should be understood as diyiyidi 第 一 義 諦 27 Baoliang’s view that thusness is the principal cause of Buddha nature is similar to Paramartha’s own view that the development of the sight of the ultimate is a prerequisite for attaining nirvana , leaving open the possibility that Paramartha could agree with Baoliang that the thusness is the ultimate truth; however, he is unlikely to agree with Baoliang that the thusness is composed of two truths, the ultimate and the conventional. Note here that zhendi and diyiyidi are both used to translate the term ultimate truth. Paramartha was not directly involved in the existing Chinese discussion of the relationship between nirvana and the two truths Jie jie can thus be seen as his private response to the problem of the principal cause of Buddha nature Before Paramartha came to China, Chinese monks had further interpreted the two truths taught in Indian scriptures in their own way. They tried to synthesize the teachings of the different Mahayana texts as mentioned above and discuss the relationship between the Buddha nature of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra and the two truths ofthePrajñaparamita S utra s and treatises. Baoliang’s view implies that thusness transcends ultimate truth and conventional truth, forming an important basis for the unique Three Truths of Chinese Buddhism.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Zhang, New, Fang, Nakai, Active, Truly, Central, Root, Wheels, Hand, Person, Monk, Lai, Mie, Mean, Living, Evolution, Due, Link, Impossible, Kind, Lower, Good, Mental, Lie]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 8 of 14 4. Paramartha and the Development of the Ultimate in China The ultimate in Indian Buddhism experienced a process of evolution, with different emphases at different stages, just as in the Three Wheels in SNS. At first, the core of Buddhism was its doctrine of pratitya-samutpada , and ultimate truth was embodied in the Four Noble Truths. Here, sravakayana Buddhists attain nirvana through the realization of the Four Noble Truths. In the second stage, thePrajñaparamita S utra s do not express anything about the nature of a cause, and the ultimate truth is mainly embodied as the emptiness. Grasping ultimate truth through words and designations is shown to be impossible. Meanwhile, M ulamadhyamakakarika states that ultimate truth cannot be realized if conventional truth is not first mastered and that the person is a fiction constructed based on skandhas and so on, in relations of dependent origin ( Siderits and Katsura 2013 , pp. 236–38). Then, the Yogacara School adds to the understanding of ultimate truth and conventional truth by proposing the three natures and the threefold absence of nature (T 676, pp. 697 a 23–09). Since Paramartha was an Indian monk, his translation of Jiejie and other works can be regarded as a new stage in the development of the ultimate truth in Indian Buddhism, that is, the ultimate has the tendency of Tathagatagarbha Beginning with the introduction of Buddhism to China, Chinese monks sought to define the ultimate and establish how it is to be understood. On the one hand, they interpreted the Buddha’s original meaning in the Buddhist scriptures transmitted from India and continued to develop Buddhist philosophy; on the other hand, they selected and developed Indian Buddhist doctrines with reference to the Chinese tradition The ultimate, which means the only reality, is not to be found in the original Chinese philosophy before Buddhism came to China. For Chinese philosophers, the difference between original root ( bengen 本 根 ) and phenomena does not lie in reality and illusion, but in source and tributary, whole and part ( Zhang 1982 , pp. 8–10). Due to the influence of Taoism, Chinese Buddhism identifies being, inactivity, and the one as forming part of higher truth, assigning their opposites, unreal non-being, active responding, and the many to lower truth ( Lai 1979 , p. 341) Sengzhao ( 僧 肇 , 384–414), the disciple of Kumarajiva, influenced by Taoist terminology, describes the ultimate as “the primary true meaning” ( diyi zhendi 第 一 真 諦 ) or “true meaning” ( zhendi 真 谛 ). In his works, Sengzhao emphasizes that primary true meaning is that dharmas are neither existent nor nonexistent. The primary true meaning cannot be achieved and attained unless this is done through conventional truth. He also states that to identify true meaning is to understand that it is not existence, while discussing conventional truth is to comprehend that it is not nonexistence (T 1858, pp. 152 b 11–b 15). Therefore, primary meaning is to be understood to mean the ultimate truth. Following Kumarajiva’s team, especially Sengzhao, emptiness and the two truths can be truly understood ( Li 2003 , pp. 106–7) Daosheng ( 道 生 355–434), another of Kumarajiva’s disciples, vigorously expounded the theory of Buddhahood, advocating that everyone has Buddha nature and all living beings can become Buddhas ( Fang 1995 , p. 74). The Buddha nature gradually became a central issue of Chinese Buddhism. Daosheng draws a link between permanence and nirvana . He believes that the Chinese word mie ( 滅 , extinction, termination) may be used in the sense of terminating mental burdens or defilements and, therefore, evoking the higher permanence of the dharmakaya or Buddha nature ( Lai 1982 , p. 103). The Buddha nature is not only an aspect of the ultimate but also an internal motivation for Buddhahood. The Buddha nature of Buddhism has something in common with human nature as described in Confucianism. As a kind of living being, human beings have a Buddha nature, that is, the good side of nature Similar to Daosheng, many monks in the Southern Dynasty discussed the two truths in the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra ( Furusaka 1971 , pp. 639–40). In discussing the relationship between nirvana and the two truths, the question as to whether the two truths contain all the dharmas is discussed. Zhizang ( 智 藏 , 458–522) of the Kaishan Monastery 開 善 寺 believes that the two truths contain all of the dharmas ( Nakai 2020 , p. 779), while Sengmin ( 僧 旻 , 467–527) of the Zhuangyan Monastery 莊 嚴 寺 believes that the two truths

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 9 of 14 cannot contain all of the dharmas, and nirvana is not included in the two truths (T 1854, pp. 113 a 29–b 06). Although he does not use the term diyiyi or the middle way to refer to the dharma beyond the two truths, Sengmin was the first to propose a third truth. Bao Liang indicates that thusness forms the substance of the two truths, and the two truths form the function of thusness, which can also be seen in terms of the Three Truths Some scholars have proposed that the Chinese were attempting to deal with the implications of the two truths concept and were beginning to favor a threefold structure to resolve the tension that they saw inhering in the two truths between the time of Sengzhao and the Liang Dynasty. The creation of the apocryphal Humane King Sutra is an example of this ( Swanson 1989 , p. 48). The idea of the Three Truths initially relied on apocryphal texts, perhaps for fear of having no basis in legitimacy. Zhiyi ( 智 顗 , 538–597) mentions the Three Truths from the Humane King Sutra in The Doctrine of the Four Teachings ( Si jiaoyi 四 教 義 , T 1929, pp. 727 c 02–c 23). Jizang’s idea on the “primary meaning of the middle way” ( zhongdao diyiyi di 中 道 第 一 義 諦 ) also comes from the Humane King Sutra . He cites the Humane King Sutra as the source for the existence of the Three Truths and makes clear that he would break away from Paramartha’s commentary and propose his own doctrine of three truths 28 In Jie jie , we can see evidence that Paramartha would not agree with the Three Truths presented in the Humane King Sutra , since there is only one ultimate truth, and zhendi and diyiyidi are the translations of the term: the ultimate. We cannot deny the possibility that Paramartha made commentaries even on s utras , which he knew to be apocryphal. It is possible that Paramartha made use of the s utra that was already established and wellknown in China in order to spread the Buddhist teachings when he was invited to preach to a Chinese audience ( Funayama 2009 , pp. 162–63). Therefore, even though Paramartha wrote a commentary on it, it cannot adequately represent his point of view. In Jie jie , Paramartha holds that there is only one ultimate truth, not three Paramartha expanded the original meaning of the ultimate. As Funayama says, in the Awakening of Faith and other works, the translation of the thusness, zhenru , is divided into two, zhen, and ru . And they are given different meanings by Chinese monks. When zhen and ru that have been separated are constructed into the word zhenru , they complete their complementary functions. By reintegrating the categories into one, we can understand the vocabulary that was previously obscured by multiplicity and comprehension and spread the word to the area of word processing. Therefore, the inclusion of words is meaningful. From this point of view, a number of important ideas that have not been considered to be directly linked overlap and begin to intersect. As a result, the main words, the thusness, tathagata, Tathagatagarbha, the aboriginally pure mind, the reality, the reality realm, and so on, used in different contexts and contexts, are shared with each other, and they share the meaning of each other ( Funayama 2017 , p. 59). For Paramartha, even without the analysis of zhen and ru separately, the ultimate is synonymous with the thusness, the reality, the reality realm, and the aboriginally pure mind in Jiejie and his other works Paramartha’s thought of the ultimate inspired the development of the ultimate in Chinese Buddhism to a certain extent. The Chinese monks who developed the Three Truths have similar ideas. Jizang proposes that the middle way that is the non-ultimate and non-conventional is the primary cause of Buddha nature (T 1853, pp. 35 c 20–37 a 10), and he considered the middle way as the third truth, however, his Three Truths were always attached to the two truths and illustrated the unattachment of nondual and not nondual ( Kashiwagura 1995 , pp. 54–55; Awaya 1982 , p. 139). On the other hand, Zhiyi not only equates the middle way with Reality ( Shixiang 实 相 ), Buddha nature, the thusness, and Tathagatagarbha, but also expands the equivalent forms of these categories and reaches a series of conclusions of categorical equivalence. The explanation of the Three Truths has already clarified the point that truth is One. The two truths are nondual. Reality is an integrated unity. Reality is best descried as “one”, integrated, and interpenetrating ( Swanson 1989 , pp. 152–54; Wang 2012 , pp. 45–46).

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 10 of 14 The ultimate thought of Chinese Buddhism still inherits that of Indian Buddhism in content, but differs greatly in the thinking method. Take Zhiyi is the example. His Three Truths are based on the theory of reality. All dharmas have the Three Truths, namely emptiness, conventional existence, and the middle way. The third truth is the synthesis, not merely the transcendence, of the two truths. The Three Truths of are integral parts of the same reality, it shows the Chinese spirit of inclusiveness and mutual adjustment ( Li 2017 , pp. 35–36) 5. Concluding Remarks Jie jie is a partial translation of the longer original of SNS, made to explain the ultimate The title of Jie jie means “The Interpreting of the Meaning Joints”. Paramartha created the prologue for Jie jie , and the epilogue emerged as a synthesis Jie jie is, therefore, an elaborative translation by Paramartha. At the end of Chapter 4, Paramartha adds one more verse consisting of four pada s that implies the ultimate is covered by lust and ignorance and is hard to be realized by common people For Paramartha, zhenru , zhenshi , and diyiyidi are all the translations of the term: the ultimate. Paramartha believes that the thusness equals the ultimate. The gain of the sight of the thusness is the prerequisite for attaining nirvana . He also implies that the ultimate is the aboriginally pure mind covered by lust and ignorance The foundation for the thought of the Three Truths was laid well before Paramartha came to China. Both the discussion of the two truths and Buddha nature by Chinese monks and apocryphal texts that preached the idea of the Three Truths, such as the Humane King Sutra , were foundational. According to Paramartha’s thinking on the ultimate truth, as reflected by Jie jie , even if he wrote the commentaries on the Humane King Sutra , he would not agree with the doctrine of the Three Truths in it The significance of Paramartha’s Jie jie is not only the comparative study it allows of SNS, but lies also in the fact that it embodies Paramartha’s thinking on the ultimate. Paramartha forges links between the words: the ultimate, thusness, reality, reality realm, the aboriginally pure mind, etc., which represent the only principles of the world to make the contents of the ultimate richer. This allows sufficient room for interpretations. This may be the reason why later Chinese monks attributed their achievements on the thusness or pure mind, including Awakening of Faith , to Paramartha Chinese monks gave these synonyms different emphasis, even ranking them differently, when interpreting the Buddhist scriptures from India. This is not a misreading but rather a creative development and continuation, as the discourse on ultimate truth has different emphases in different texts. The Three Truths proposed by Zhiyi laid the foundation for the development of Chinese Buddhist sects. The conception of the Three Truths was developed by Chinese monks following their own thinking Author Contributions: SW. and HH.; methodology, SW.; writing—original draft preparation, SW.; writing—review and editing, SW. and HH. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript Funding: This research received no external funding Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable Data Availability Statement: Not applicable Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 11 of 14 Abbreviations T Taisho shinsh u daizokyo 大 正 新 脩 大 藏 經 . 85 vols. Edited by Takakusu Junjir o 高 楠 順 次 郎 and Watanabe Kaigyoku 渡 辺 海 旭 . Tokyo: Taish o Issaiky o Kank okai, 1924–1932. Available online: https://21 dzk.lu-tokyo.ac.jp/SAT/satdb 2015.php (accessed on 1 December 2021) X Shinsan dainihon zoku zokyo 新 纂 大 日 本 續 藏 經 . 90 vols. Edited by Kawamura K osh o 河 村 孝 照 , Nishi Yoshio 西 義 雄 , and Tamaki K oshir o 玉 城 康 四 郎 . Tokyo: Kokusho Kank okai, 1975–1989 CBETA electronic edition (Version 5.3, 6 October 2016) Notes 1 又 汎 小 舶 至 梁 安 郡 ， 更 裝 大 舶 欲 返 西 國 。 學 徒 追 逐 相 續 留 連 。 太 守 王 方 奢 述 衆 元 情 ， 重 申 邀 請 ， 諦 又 且 修 人事 ， 權止 海 隅 。 伺 旅 束 裝 ， 未 思 安 堵 。 (T 2060, pp. 430 a 12–a 15) 2 西 天 竺 優 禪 尼 國 三 藏 法 師 ， 號 拘 羅 那 他 ， 此 云 眞 諦 。 梁 武 皇 帝 遠遣 迎 接 。 經 遊 閩 越 ， 暫 憩 梁 安 。 太 守 王 方 賖 乃 勤 心 正 法 ， 性 愛 大 乘 。 仍 於 建 造 伽 藍 ， 請 弘 茲 典 。 法 師 不乖 本 願 ， 受 三 請 而 默 然 。 尋 此 舊 經 ， 甚 有 脱 悞 。 即 於 壬 午 年 五 月 一 日 重 翻 天 竺 定 文 ， 依 婆 藪 論 釋 。 法 師 善 解 方 言 ， 無 勞 度 語 ， 矚 彼 玄 文 ， 宣 此 奧 説 ， 對 偕 宗 法 師 法 虔 等 並 共 筆 受 。 至 九 月 二 十 五 日文 義 都 竟 ， 經 本 一 卷 ， 文 義 十卷 。 法 虔 爾 目 ， 仍 願 造 一 百 部 流 通 供 養 ， 并 講 之 十 徧 。 普 願 衆 生 因 此正 説 ， 速 至 涅 槃 ， 常 流 應 化 。 (T 237, pp 766 b 29–c 11) 3 Several studies have confirmed that Liang’an County was located in what is now the county-level city of Nan’an 南 安 市 in Fujian Province 福 建 省 . See Tang ( [1938] 1983 , pp. 615–24); Zhang ( 1983 , pp. 82–85); Zhang ( 1985 , pp. 94–98); Fang ( 1990 , pp. 199–200); Liao ( 1997 , pp. 1–5); and Yang ( 2015 , pp. 101–5) 4 Interpretation: Paramartha translates Jie jie to clarify the characteristics of the ultimate truth. Thus, [he] only translates the middle 4 of the 18 chapters, and leaves the other 14 chapters untranslated. [ 解 云 ： 真 諦 翻 《 解 節 經 》 意 欲 礭 明 勝 義 諦 相 。 故 十 八 品 內 但 翻 中 間 四 品 ， 略 而 不 翻 餘 十 四 品 。 ] (X 369, pp. 184 c 19–c 21) According to Shenmi jietuo jing (T 675) and the Tibetan translation of SNS, SNS has a prologue and 10 chapters. This interpretation, however, states that SNS has 18 chapters. The record of Jie jie in The Record of the Three Treasures throughout Successive Dynasties ( Lidai sanbao ji 歷 代三 寶 記 ) also mentions that SNS originally had 18 chapters: “The sutra originally had 18 chapters”. Now, it is one volume, just one chapter, that is, Chapter four. Paramartha simply translated it to prove the doctrine. [ 此 經 本有 一 十 八 品 ， 今 此 一 卷 ， 止 是 第 四 一 品 ， 眞 諦 略 出 以 證 義 耳 。 ] (T 2034, p 87 c 14) Although both Lidai sanbao ji and W ˘onch’ ˘uk state that Paramartha’s SNS has 18 chapters, they have different records on the corresponding chapters of Jie jie , that is, Fei states that Jie jie corresponds to Chapter 4 of SNS, while W ˘onch’ ˘uk states that Paramartha translated the middle four chapters of SNS. Since we know nothing about the 18 chapters version of SNS, we cannot judge which part of it Jie jie corresponds to. Ui Hakuju speculates that “just one chapter, that is, Chapter 4 ( disiyipin 第 四 一 品 )” may be the mistake of “the first four chapters ( diyisipin 第 一 四 品 )”. See ( Ui [1930] 1965 , pp. 82–83) 5 In Daizokyo, Gunabhadra’s translations of SNS are Xuangxu jietuo di boluomi liaoyi jing 相 續 解 脫 地 波 羅 蜜 了 義 經 (T 678), and Xuangxu jietuo rulai suozuo liaoyi jing 相 續 解 脫 如 來 所 作 隨 順 處 了 義 經 (T 679). However, the record in the Compilation of Notes on the Translation of the Tripitaka ( Chu sanzang jiji 出 三 藏 記 集 ) is “ Xiangxu jietuo jing 相 續 解 脫 經 , two volumes” (T 2145, p 12 c 26) The Record of the Three Treasures throughout Successive Dynasties ( Lidai sanbao ji 歷 代三 寶 記 ) and the Catalogue of Buddhist Works in the Great Tang ( Datang neidian lu 大 唐 內典 錄 ) both take it as “ Xiangxu jietuo liaoyi jing 相 續 解 脫 了 義 經 , two volumes” (T 2034, p 91 b 09; T 2149, p 258 c 25). Since this paper only compares the titles of four Chinese translations, we call Gunabhadra’s translation Xuangxu jietuo , which corresponds to sam . dhinirmocana 6 Regarding the analysis on the Chinese titles of SNS, see W ˘onch’ ˘uk’s Commentary on Sam . dhinirmocanas utra (X 369, pp. 179 b 10–c 18); Tullyun 遁 倫 or Toryun 道 倫 ’s Note on Yogacara treatise (T 1828, pp. 771 b 09–b 14); ( Lamotte 1935 , pp. 12–13; Edgerton 1953 , p. 558; Takasaki 2009 , pp. 168–69) 7 The Buddha told the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara: This sutra is called ‘the correct teaching of the explicit meaning’ 佛 告 觀 世 音 菩 薩 ： “ 此 經 名 爲 ‘ 了 義 正 説 ’ 。 ”(T 677, p. 714 c 04) 8 “ Nengjie shenshenyi jie pusa 能 解 甚 深 義 節 菩 薩 ”: T 677, p 711 c 16–p 712 b 12; “ jie jie shen fa 解 節 深 法 ”: T 677, p 714 c 02 9 “ Jie shenhenyi miyi pusa 解 甚 深 義 密 意 菩 薩 ”: T 676, p 688 c 12–689 c 04; “ jie shenmi famen 解 深 密 法 門 ”: T 676, p 697 b 27, p 703 a 27, p 708 b 01, p 711 b 15–b 16 10 This is my attempt at a provisional translation of the title 11 In order to complete this sutra along with the three whole parts, the prologue is placed before the Chapter of Non-duality (Chapter 1) and the epilogue is placed at the end of the Chapter of Single Taste (Chapter 4). Chapter 1 of Paramartha’s commentary states, “The general preface is omitted at the beginning of the sutra because the translator omits it.” Interpretation: “omitting”’ means that the chapter name is not placed or there is no “prologue” to name it 為 成 此 經 具 足 三 分 ， 故 《 不二 品 》 內 安 通 序 文 ， 《 一 味品 》 末 安 後 流 通 。 故 真 諦 《 記 》 第 一 卷 云 ： “ 經 初 不 說 通 序 文 者 ， 譯 家 略 故 。 ” 解 云 ： 不 安 品 目 故 說 為 略 ， 非 無 序 文 名 之 為 略 。 (X 369, p 184 c 21–c 24) 12 Wu shang yi jing is a sutra on Tathagatagarbha. It appears in Chinese only (T 669). Paramartha translated it in the Jingtu Monastery 淨 土 寺 of Nankang County 南 康 郡 in 557. See Yang ( 2016 , pp. 64–70); Takasaki ( 2010 , pp. 99–108).

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Sand, Add, Gates, Wisdom, Pir, Peer, Loss, Minor, Lose, Answer, Major, Master, Few, Atis, Speak, English, River, Ramit, Past, Param, Edge, Keenan]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 12 of 14 13 逆 生 死 流 道 ， 微 細 深 難 見 。 欲 染 癡 覆 故 ， 凡 人不 能 得 。 (T 677, pp. 714 b 28–b 29) 14 逆 生 死 流 道 ， 甚 深 微 難 見 ， 貪 慾 覆 衆 生 ， 愚 冥 暗 不 見 。 (T 664, pp. 377 a 20–a 21) 15 The master is good at understanding dialects and does not need a mediator 法 師 善 解 方 言 ， 無 勞 度 語 。 (T 237, pp. 766 c 06–c 07) 16 修 行 比 丘 若 已 通達 一 陰 真 如 、 人 法 無 我 ， 不 勞 更 觀 一一 餘 陰 所 有 真 如 ； 於 十 二 入 、 十 二 緣 生 、 四 食 、 四 諦 、 諸 界 、 念 處 、 正 勤 、 如 意 足 、 根 、 力 、 覺 分 、 八 聖 道 分 ， 若 已 通達 一 陰 真 如 、 人 法 無 我 ， 不 勞 更 觀 餘 聖 道 分 所 有 真 如 。 (T 677, pp. 714 b 01–b 05) 17 猶 如 諸 陰 互 有 別 相 ， 如 十 二 入 、 十 二 緣 生 、 四 食 、 四 諦 、 諸 界 、 念 處 、 正 勤 、 如 意 足 、 根 、 力 、 覺 分 、 八 聖 道 分 互 有 別 相 ， 若 諸 法 真 如 、 人 法 無 我 互 有 別 相 ， 則 諸 法 如如 、 人 法 無 我 不 成 真 實 ， 應 由 因 生 ； 若 由 因 生 ， 則 成 有 為 ； 若 是 有 為 ， 則 非 真 實 ； 若 非 真 實 ， 更 應 於 此 求 別 真 實 。 須 菩 提 ！ 由 此 真 實 不 從 因 生 ， 非 是 有 為 ， 非 不 真 實 ， 於 中不 勞 求 別 真 實 。 何 以 故 ？ 此 法 恆 常 。 若 佛 出 世 ， 若 不 出 世 ， 法 性 、 法 界 、 法 住 皆 悉 長 住 。 須 菩 提 ！ 以 是 義 故 汝 應 當 知 ， 一 味 真 實 等 一 切 處 。 (T 677, pp. 714 b 10–b 20) 18 I have referred to two English translations for my analysis. See ( Powers 1995 , pp. 37–41; Keenan 2000 , pp. 18–19). The original text is following: 淨 慧 ！ 若 真 如 與 行 相 不 異 者 ， 一 切 凡 夫 應 見 真 如 ； 複 次 一 切 眾 生 正 在 凡 位 ， 應 得 無 上 如 安 涅 槃 ； 複 次 一 切 眾 生 於 凡 位 中 ， 亦 應 能 得 無 上 菩 提 。 若 真 如 相 異 於 行 相 ， 一 切 聖 人 已 見 真 如 ， 則 應 不 能 伏 滅 行 相 ； 由 不 伏 滅 諸 行 相 故 ， 雖 見 真 諦 ， 不 能 解 脫 眾 相 繋 縛 ； 若 於 眾 相 不 得 解 脫 。 亦不 解 脫 麁 重 繋 縛 ； 若 不 解 脫 二 種 繋 縛 ， 則 不 能 得 無 上 如 安 無 餘 涅 槃 ， 亦 應 不 得 無 上 菩 提 。 淨 慧 ！ 由 諸 凡 夫 不 見 真 如 ， 在 凡 夫 位 不 得 無 上 如 安 涅 槃 ， 亦不 能 得 無 上 菩 提 ， 以 是 義 故 ， 真 如 之 理 與 諸 行 一 ， 是 義 不 然 。 若 有 人 說 真 如 與 行 相 不 異 者 ， 由 此 義 故 ， 當 知 是 人不 如 理 行 。 複 次 ， 淨 慧 ！ 一 切 聖 人 由 見 真 如 ， 已 能 伏 滅 諸 法 行 相 ， 非 不 能 ； 故 已 能 解 脫 一 切 相 結 及 麁 重 惑 ， 非 不 解 脫 ； 由 二 解 脫 ， 已 得 無 上 如 安 涅 槃 ， 乃 至 已 得 無 上 菩 提 。 是 故 真 如 與 行 相 異 ， 是 義 不 然 。 若 有 人 說 真 異 行 相 ， 以 是 義 故 ， 當 知 此 人不 如 理 行 。 (T 677, pp. 713 a 17–b 07) 19 Correspondingly, Bodhiruci translates it as diyiyidi 第 一 義 諦 or dishi 諦 實 ; Xuanzang translates it as di 諦 ; and the Tibetan translation is bden pa . See T 675, p.667 b 21( diyiyidi ), b 24( diyiyidi ), b 26( dishi ), c 01( dishi ), c 03( dishi ); T 676, pp. 690 b 21, b 24, b 26, b 28, c 01, c 07-c 09; ( Lamotte 1935 , pp. 3, 43–44) 20 Shiba kong lun : 《 解 節 經 》 明 ： 佛 說 有 七 種 真 如 ： 一 生 ， 二 相 ， 三 識 ， 四 依 止 ， 五 邪 行 ， 六 清 淨 ， 七 正 行 。 · · · 此 之七 種 真 如 ， 即 第 一 義 諦 。 第 一 義 諦 即 真 實 性 攝 ， 是 故 名 為 七 種 真 如 ， 即 是 前 明 七 種 真 實 。 (T 1616, pp. 864 b 03–b 12) 21 Shiba kong lun is contained in Neidian and supposed as Da kong lun Da 大 is very similar to shiba 十 八 when written vertically Yang believes that Shiba kong lun is Da kong lun , which was composed in 558, at the Qiyin Monastery 栖 Religions 2022 , 13 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14 16 修行比丘若已通達一陰真如、人法無我，不勞更觀一一餘陰所有真如；於十二入、十二緣生、四食、四諦、諸界、念處、正 勤、如意足、根、力、覺分、八聖道分，若已通達一陰真如、人法無我，不勞更觀餘聖道分所有真如。 (T 677, pp. 714 b 01–b 05). 17 猶如諸陰互有別相，如十二入、十二緣生、四食、四諦、諸界、念處、正勤、如意足、根、力、覺分、八聖道分互有別相，若 諸法真如、人法無我互有別相，則諸法如如、人法無我不成真實，應由因生；若由因生，則成有為；若是有為，則非真實；若 非真實，更應於此求別真實。須菩提！由此真實不從因生，非是有為，非不真實，於中不勞求別真實。何以故？此法恆常。若 佛出世，若不出世，法性、法界、法住皆悉長住。須菩提！以是義故汝應當知，一味真實等一切處。 (T 677, pp. 714 b 10 – b 20). 18 I have referred to two English translations for my analysis. See (Powers 1995, pp. 37–41; Keenan 2000, pp. 18–19). The original text is following: 淨慧！若真如與行相不異者，一切凡夫應見真如；複次一切眾生正在凡位，應得無上如安涅槃；複次一切眾 生於凡位中，亦應能得無上菩提。若真如相異於行相，一切聖人已見真如，則應不能伏滅行相；由不伏滅諸行相故，雖見真 諦，不能解脫眾相繋縛；若於眾相不得解脫。亦不解脫麁重繋縛；若不解脫二種繋縛，則不能得無上如安無餘涅槃，亦應不得 無上菩提。淨慧！由諸凡夫不見真如，在凡夫位不得無上如安涅槃，亦不能得無上菩提，以是義故，真如之理與諸行一，是義 不然。若有人說真如與行相不異者，由此義故，當知是人不如理行。複次，淨慧！一切聖人由見真如，已能伏滅諸法行相，非 不能；故已能解脫一切相結及麁重惑，非不解脫；由二解脫，已得無上如安涅槃，乃至已得無上菩提。是故真如與行相異，是 義不然。若有人說真異行相，以是義故，當知此人不如理行。 (T 677, pp. 713 a 17–b 07). 19 Correspondingly, Bodhiruci translates it as diyiyidi 第一義諦 or dishi 諦實 ; Xuanzang translates it as di 諦 ; and the Tibetan translation is bden pa . See T 675, p.667 b 21( diyiyidi ), b 24( diyiyidi ), b 26( dishi ), c 01( dishi ), c 03( dishi ); T 676, pp. 690 b 21, b 24, b 26, b 28, c 01, c 07-c 09; (Lamotte 1935, pp. 3, 43–44). 20. Shiba kong lun : 《解節經》明：佛說有七種真如：一生，二相，三識，四依止，五邪行，六清淨，七正行。… 此之七種真如， 即第一義諦。第一義諦即真實性攝，是故名為七種真如，即是前明七種真實。 (T 1616, pp. 864 b 03 – b 12). 21. Shiba kong lun is contained in Neidian and supposed as Da kong lun . Da 大 is very similar to shiba 十八 when written vertically. Yang believes that Shiba kong lun is Da kong lun , which was composed in 558, at the Qiyin Monastery 栖隐寺 of Yuzhang County 豫章郡 . See (Radich 2012; Yang 2015). 22. Madhy ā ntavibh ā gabh ā ṣ ya translated by Param ā rtha : Neither defiled nor undefiled, neither pure nor impure. Because the mind is originally pure, because [it is deflied by] the afflictions and adventitious defilements 不染非不染，非浄非不淨。心本清淨故， 煩惱客塵故。 (T 1599, pp. 453 a 28–a 29). 23. Just a few examples: Shiba kong lun : How can it be ascertained that the dharma realm is neither pure nor impure? Answer: Amoluo shi is the innately pure mind. It is only because it is tainted by adventitious dirt that we speak of it as ‘impure’; because of adventitious dirt, [that is,] we establish that it is [also] impure.” 雲何分判法界非淨、非不淨？答：阿摩羅識是自性 清淨心。但為客塵所污，故名不淨；為客塵盡，故立為淨。 (T 1616, pp. 863 b 18–b 21) Foxing lun : The nature of Tathāgata is the innate purity. It can be covered by adventitious defilements because of emptiness. Thus, it has nothing to lose. The thusness is inseparable from the cause of the purity, always equal to the non-rejecting wisdom that is more than the number of grains of sand in the Ganges River and virtues of inconceivable Buddhas. Thus, it has nothing to add. If dhammas are causeless, the emptiness of the thusness is observed [through] this nonexistent dhamma. Since the remaining dharma exists, the nonemptiness of the thusness is observed. So, the thusness has both emptiness and non-emptiness. 如來性者，自清淨故。能染客 塵者，自性空故。故言無一法可損。眞如者，與清淨因不相離，過恒沙數等不捨智，不可思惟諸佛功徳恒相應故。故言無一法 可増。若法無因此無法觀眞如空，以餘法有故，觀如不空。故言眞如亦空不空。 (T 1610, pp. 812 b 25–c 01) For the relationship between Amoluo shi 阿摩羅識 (* amalavijñ ā na ) and the Tathā gatagarbha proposed by Param ā rtha, see (Radich 2008, 2016). 24. In A Profound Discourse on the Great vehicle ( Dacheng xuanlun 大乘玄論 ), Jizang lists 11 views on the principal cause of Buddha nature in the Southern Dynasty (T 1853, pp. 35 b 20–c 25). Additionally, in A Note on the Profound Meaning of Four Treatises on the Great Vehicle ( Dacheng silun xuanyi ji 大乘四論玄義記 ), Huijun states that there are 3 major views and 10 minor views of the principal cause of Buddha nature (X 784, pp. 601 a 18–602 a 11). Tang combined these lists and made a detailed arrangement. See (Tang [1938] 1983, pp. 474–476). 25 Baoliang said: In the second part below, the middle way of reality is redefined. If [we] only talk about the teachings of the past, [we] just choose life and death, emptiness and existence as reality. If [we] now take the Mahāyā na Mahāparinirvāṇ a Sūtra as the teaching, [we] can know the wonderful substance of the consciousness, thusness, as reality. 寶亮曰：此下第二重 明實相中道也。若直談昔教，偏取生死空有爲實。若就今經爲語，乃識神明妙體眞如爲實。 (T 1763, pp. 460 c 02 – c 09). 26 Baoliang said: Although Buddha nature is in the aggregates, elements, and fields, it is not contained by the aggregates. The two truths together constitute an element of the consciousness. However, the edge of the conventional is always aggregates, fields, and elements; the substance of the ultimate is always unconditional. Since the substance of the ultimate is unconditional, though [Buddha nature] is in the five aggregates, it is not contained in the five aggregates. The substance of the ultimate is immobility, so there is no temporary loss of the function. Because there is no loss of the function, choose [the element of the consciousness] as the principal cause. If there is no wonderful substance [of the ultimate], which is the basis of the functioning of [the element of] the consciousness, then it should not be said that though [Buddha nature] is in the aggregates, fields, and elements, it is not contained in the aggregates and fields. 寶亮曰：佛性雖在陰界入中，而非陰所攝者。 眞俗兩諦，乃是共成一神明法。而俗邊恒陰入界，眞體恒無爲也。以眞體無爲故，雖在陰，而非陰所攝也。體性不動，而用無 暫虧。以用無虧故，取爲正因。若無此妙體爲神用之本者，則不應言雖在陰入界中，而非陰入所攝也。 (T 1763_.37.0465 a 04– a 20). 27 If one first believes in two truths, one believes that life and death are false existence, namely, its substance is non-existence. This reveals the two gates, emptiness and existence after being based on Pañcavi ṃ ś atis ā hasrik ā Prajñ ā p ā ramit ā . Later, if one further believes the primary meaning, one believes that the supremacy of the wonderful substance of the consciousness, that 寺 of Yuzhang County 豫 章 郡 . See ( Radich 2012 ; Yang 2015 ). 22 Madhyantavibhagabhasya translated by Paramartha : Neither defiled nor undefiled, neither pure nor impure. Because the mind is originally pure, because [it is deflied by] the afflictions and adventitious defilements 不 染 非 不 染 ， 非 浄 非 不 淨 。 心 本 清 淨 故 ， 煩 惱 客 塵 故 。 (T 1599, pp. 453 a 28–a 29) 23 Just a few examples: Shiba kong lun : How can it be ascertained that the dharma realm is neither pure nor impure? Answer: Amoluo shi is the innately pure mind. It is only because it is tainted by adventitious dirt that we speak of it as ‘impure’; because of adventitious dirt, [that is,] we establish that it is [also] impure.” 雲 何 分判 法 界 非 淨 、 非 不 淨 ？ 答 ： 阿 摩 羅 識 是 自 性 清 淨 心 。 但 為 客 塵 所 污 ， 故 名 不 淨 ； 為 客 塵 盡 ， 故 立 為 淨 。 (T 1616, pp. 863 b 18–b 21) Foxing lun : The nature of Tathagata is the innate purity It can be covered by adventitious defilements because of emptiness. Thus, it has nothing to lose. The thusness is inseparable from the cause of the purity, always equal to the non-rejecting wisdom that is more than the number of grains of sand in the Ganges River and virtues of inconceivable Buddhas. Thus, it has nothing to add. If dhammas are causeless, the emptiness of the thusness is observed [through] this nonexistent dhamma. Since the remaining dharma exists, the non-emptiness of the thusness is observed. So, the thusness has both emptiness and non-emptiness 如 來 性 者 ， 自 清 淨 故 。 能 染 客 塵 者 ， 自 性 空 故 。 故 言 無 一 法 可 損 。 眞 如 者 ， 與 清 淨 因 不 相 離 ， 過 恒 沙 數 等 不 捨 智 ， 不 可 思惟 諸 佛 功 徳 恒 相 應 故 。 故 言 無 一 法 可 増 。 若 法 無 因 此 無 法 觀 眞 如 空 ， 以 餘 法 有 故 ， 觀 如 不 空 。 故 言 眞 如 亦 空 不 空 。 (T 1610, pp. 812 b 25–c 01) For the relationship between Amoluo shi 阿 摩 羅 識 (* amalavijñana ) and the Tathagatagarbha proposed by Paramartha, see ( Radich 2008 , 2016 ). 24 In A Profound Discourse on the Great vehicle ( Dacheng xuanlun 大 乘 玄 論 ), Jizang lists 11 views on the principal cause of Buddha nature in the Southern Dynasty (T 1853, pp. 35 b 20–c 25). Additionally, in A Note on the Profound Meaning of Four Treatises on the Great Vehicle ( Dacheng silun xuanyi ji 大 乘 四 論 玄 義 記 ), Huijun states that there are 3 major views and 10 minor views of the principal cause of Buddha nature (X 784, pp. 601 a 18–602 a 11). Tang combined these lists and made a detailed arrangement. See ( Tang [1938] 1983 , pp. 474–76) 25 Baoliang said: In the second part below, the middle way of reality is redefined. If [we] only talk about the teachings of the past, [we] just choose life and death, emptiness and existence as reality. If [we] now take the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana S utra as the teaching, [we] can know the wonderful substance of the consciousness, thusness, as reality 寶 亮 曰 ： 此 下 第 二 重 明 實 相 中 道 也 。 若 直 談 昔 教 ， 偏 取 生 死 空 有 爲 實 。 若 就 今 經 爲 語 ， 乃 識 神 明 妙 體 眞 如 爲 實 。 (T 1763, pp. 460 c 02–c 09) 26 Baoliang said: Although Buddha nature is in the aggregates, elements, and fields, it is not contained by the aggregates. The two truths together constitute an element of the consciousness. However, the edge of the conventional is always aggregates, fields, and elements; the substance of the ultimate is always unconditional. Since the substance of the ultimate is unconditional, though [Buddha nature] is in the five aggregates, it is not contained in the five aggregates. The substance of the ultimate is immobility, so there is no temporary loss of the function. Because there is no loss of the function, choose [the element of the consciousness] as the principal cause. If there is no wonderful substance [of the ultimate], which is the basis of the functioning of [the element of] the consciousness, then it should not be said that though [Buddha nature] is in the aggregates, fields, and elements, it is not contained in the aggregates and fields 寶 亮 曰 ： 佛 性 雖 在 陰 界 入 中 ， 而 非 陰 所 攝 者 。 眞 俗 兩 諦 ， 乃 是 共 成 一 神 明 法 。 而 俗 邊 恒 陰

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Yong, Rely, Press, Cambridge, Toru, Nyo, Chih, Indo, Shin, Ang, Bongo, Goes, Kango, Prince, Present, John, West, East, Yori, Jian, Chao, Haven, Akira, Yale, Franklin, Rise, Tsang, Sho, Cross, Onan, Culture, Tao, Berkeley, Pan, Sheng, Tendai, Dui, Self, Nehan, Ming, Mahapa, Chi, Ching, Hirai, Whalen, Ien, Akihiro]

Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 13 of 14 入 界 ， 眞 體 恒 無 爲 也 。 以 眞 體 無 爲 故 ， 雖 在 陰 ， 而 非 陰 所 攝 也 。 體 性 不 動 ， 而 用 無 暫 虧 。 以 用 無 虧 故 ， 取 爲 正 因 。 若 無 此 妙 體 爲 神 用 之 本 者 ， 則 不 應 言 雖 在 陰 入 界 中 ， 而 非 陰 入 所 攝 也 。 (T 1763_.37.0465 a 04–a 20) 27 If one first believes in two truths, one believes that life and death are false existence, namely, its substance is non-existence. This reveals the two gates, emptiness and existence after being based onPañcavim . satisahasrika Prajñaparamita . Later, if one further believes the primary meaning, one believes that the supremacy of the wonderful substance of the consciousness, that is, thusness Therefore, it is known that the truth clearly defined by the present teaching is not the emptiness of self-nature in the past teaching 無 信 於 二 諦 者 ， 信 生 死 是 忘 有 ， 即 體 無 性 。 此 據 《 大 品 》 以 來 ， 開 空 有 二 門 。 後 更 稱 信 第 一 義 諦 者 ， 信 神 明 妙 體 眞 如 之 第 一 。 故 知 今 教 所 明 “ 真 ” 者 ， 非 昔 教 之 性 空 。 (T 1763, pp. 538 a 30–b 05) 28 The second part clarifies that the conventional is the truth for common people, and the ultimate is the truth for saints. [The category of] the ultimate and the conventional is not the reality, [The middle way that is both] the non-true and non-false is the reality. Why does the Humane King Sutra say there are three truths, namely, the truth of existence, the truth of non-existence, and the primary meaning of the middle way? Interpretation: In fact, there is only one truth, not three. Just follow all living beings to teach the Three Truths, follow those that rely on the ultimate and the conventional to teach the ultimate and the conventional. So, the Mahapa-rinirvana S utra states that “the conventional is the ultimate truth.” Then, it goes on to say that “The truth known to the world is called the conventional Truth, and the truth known those that is out of the world is called the ultimate truth.” Apart from that, Paramartha makes clear that there is the meaning of three truths, now, I make clear that these three truths are just taught following the sentient beings. Since two truths are taught following sentient beings, the primary meaning of the middle way is also taught following sentient beings 第 二 節 明 俗 於 凡 是 諦 、 真 於 聖 是 諦 ； 真 俗 竝 非 諦 ， 非 真 非 俗 諦 者 ， 《 仁 王 經 》 何 故 云三 諦 —— 有 諦 、 無 諦 、 中 道 第 一 義 諦 耶 ？ 解 云 ： 實 唯 一 諦 ， 無 有 三 諦 ， 但 隨 順 衆 生 説 有 三 諦 ， 隨 真 俗 縁 故 説 真 俗 諦 。 所 以 《 涅 槃 經 》 明 “ 世 諦 即 第 一 義 ” 。 次 即 云 “ 世人 知 者 名 世 諦 、 出 世人 知 者 名 第 一 義 諦 也 。 ” 脱 真 諦 三 藏 ， 明 有 三 諦 義 。 今 明 此 三 諦 竝 ， 隨 衆 生 故 説 耳 。 二 諦 既 是 隨 衆 生 説 ， 中 道 第 一 義 諦 亦 是 隨 衆 生 説 。 (T 1854, pp. 101 b 14–b 27), See ( Hirai 1964 , p. 675) References Awaya, Ry od o 粟 谷 良 道 . 1982. Tendai santaisetsu to kichiz o nitaisetsu 天 台 三 諦 説 と 吉 蔵 二 諦 説 [T’ien-t’ai’s Theory of Three Truths and Chi-Ts’ang’s Theory of Two Truths] Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenky u 印 度 学 仏 教 学 研究 [Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies] 31: 138–39. [ CrossRef ] Edgerton, Franklin. 1953 Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, Volume II: Dictionary . New Haven: Yale University Press Fang, Yong 方 拥 . 1990. 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Religions 2022 , 13 , 17 14 of 14 Li, Yong 李 勇 . 2017. Zhongguanxue yu zhonguo fojiao: Yi Jizang yu Zhiyi de erdi lun wei zhongxin 中 观 学 与 中 国 佛 教 —— 以 吉 藏 与 智 顗 的 二 谛 论 为 中 心 [The Madhyamika School and Chinese Buddhism: A Comparison of the Two Truths Theory of Chi-tsang and Zhi-yi] Huazhong keji daxue xuebao (shehui kexue ban) 华 中 科 技 大 学学 报 （ 社 会 科 学 版 ） [Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)] 31: 29–36 Liao, Dake 廖 大 珂 . 1997. Liang’an jun lishi yu wang shi jiazu 梁 安 郡 史 与 王 氏 家 族 [History of Liang’an County and the Wang family] Haiyang Shi Yanjiu 海 洋 史 研究 [Studies of Maritime History] 2: 1–5 Nakai, Honsh o 中 井 本 勝 . 2020. Chiz o to kichiz o to no nitaisetsu no sai ni tsuite 智 蔵 と 吉 蔵 との 二 諦 説 の 差 異 について [The Difference in the Theories of the Two Truths of Zhizang 智 蔵 and Jizang 吉 蔵 ] Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenky u 印 度 学 仏 教 学 研究 [Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies] 68: 778–83. [ CrossRef ] Paul, Diana. 1982. The Life and Time of Paramartha (499–569) The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 5: 37–69 Powers, John. 1995 Wisdom of Buddha: The Sam . dhinirmocana S utra . Berkeley: Dharma Publishing Radich, Michael. 2008. The Doctrine of * Amalavijñana in Paramartha (499–569), and Later Authors to Approximately 800 C.E Zinbun 41: 45–174 Radich, Michael. 2012. External Evidence Relating to Works Ascribed to Paramartha, with a Focus on Traditional Chinese Catalogues’ In Shintai sanzo kenky u ronsh u 真 諦 三 藏 研究 論 集 [Studies of the Works and Influence of Paramartha] . Edited by Funayama T oru 船 山 徹 . Kyoto: Ky oto daigaku jinbun kagaku kenky ujo [Institute for Researchin Humanities], Kyoto University, pp. 39–102 Radich, Michael. 2014. On the Sources, Style and Authorship of Chapters of the Synoptic Suvarnaprabhasottama-s utra T 664 Ascribed to Paramartha (Part 1) Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology 17: 207–44 Radich, Michael. 2015. 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