Coloring the World: Some Thoughts from Jain and Buddhist Narratives

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religions Article Coloring the World: Some Thoughts from Jain and Buddhist Narratives Phyllis Grano ff Department of Religious Studies, Yale University, 451 College St, New Haven, CT 06511, USA; phyllisgrano ff @yale.edu Received: 2 December 2019; Accepted: 18 December 2019; Published: 23 December 2019 Abstract: This paper begins with an examination of early Indian speculation about colors, their number, their use, and their significance. It ranges widely from the Upanisads to the Natya´sastra , from ´Svet¯ambara Jain canonical texts to Buddhaghosa’s treatise on meditation, the Visuddhimagga , from puranas to technical treatises on painting. It turns then to examine how select Jain and Buddhist texts used color in two important scenarios, descriptions of the setting for events and the person of the Jina / Buddha. In the concluding reflections, I compare textual practices with a few examples from the visual record to ask what role if any the colors specified in a story might have played in the choices made by an artist Keywords: Buddhism; Jainism; color 1. Introduction 1 I begin this essay with two images of Avalokite´svara, close to each other in date, a sculpture from the 11 th c. in the Cleveland Museum of art, Figure 1 , and a folio from a 12 th century manuscript of the Astasahasrika Prajñaparamita in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Figure 2 . The Cleveland image shows traces of its original paint. Both images, of very di ff erent size, in completely di ff erent media, rely on angular lines and curves to convey movement and create a rich and complex tableau. By placing them together, I wanted to suggest that the vibrancy and motion in the painting also owe much to the skillful use of color. Thus, the oranges lead the eye from the monkey to the small figures below, down the side of the painting and around to Avalokitesvara’s larger devotee, who leans into him, hands folded, and then across to the garment and hair of the fierce figure at the viewer’s right. Greens and whites similarly compel the eye to move through the painting. The careful contrasts of dark and light also create a sense of depth and three dimensionality. As our eyes move through the additional lines created by the colors, the entire scene seems to be animated. Returning to the sculpture, where light and shadow now must replace color, we can only wonder what it might have been like with its original paint 1 This paper was originally delivered at a symposium, Indian Buddhist Narrative: Text and Image, at New College, Edinburgh, September 2019. I thank Naomi Appleton, who organized the symposium, and Sonya Rhie Mace, Donald Stadtner, and Osmund Bopearachchi for their comments on this paper Religions 2020 , 11 , 9; doi:10.3390 / rel 11010009 www.mdpi.com / journal / religions

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Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 2 of 20 Religions 2020 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20 religious experience in India. The importance of color in Sanskrit literature is apparent from its beginnings and if anything increases over the centuries as descriptions become more and more elaborate. Figure 1. Lokesvara Khasarpana form of Avalokitesvara. Late 11 th century. India, Nalanda, Pala Period(c.750 – c.1200). Steatite;Overall: 7.7 cm (3 1/16 in.). The Severance and Greta Millikin Purchase Fund 1991.155; Cleveland Museum of Art. Figure 2. Avalokitesvara from an Aṣṭasāhasrika Prajñāpāramitā . Period: Pala period . Date: early 12 th century . Culture:Bengal, eastern India or Bangladesh . Dimensions: Page: 2 3/4 × 16 7/16 in. (7 × 41.8 cm) . Image: 2 1/2 × 1 15/16 in. (6.4 × 4.9 cm) . Credit Line: Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 2001 . Accession Number: 2001.445 l. Metropolitan Museum. Kālidāsa’s Kumārasa ṃ bhava , celebrating the birth of the god Skanda to Śiva and Pārvatī , makes ample use of color in its descriptions of the setting of the story and its hero and heroine. The setting for the poem is the great mountain Himālaya, a description of which begins the poem. Kālidāsa uses a puranic myth, that the ancient King Pṛthu milked the earth, which had taken the form of a cow, to Figure 1. Lokesvara Khasarpana form of Avalokitesvara. Late 11 th century. India, Nalanda, Pala Period(c.750–c.1200). Steatite;Overall: 7.7 cm (3 1 / 16 in.). The Severance and Greta Millikin Purchase Fund 1991.155; Cleveland Museum of Art Religions 2020 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20 religious experience in India. The importance of color in Sanskrit literature is apparent from its beginnings and if anything increases over the centuries as descriptions become more and more elaborate. Figure 1. Lokesvara Khasarpana form of Avalokitesvara. Late 11 th century. India, Nalanda, Pala Period(c.750 – c.1200). Steatite;Overall: 7.7 cm (3 1/16 in.). The Severance and Greta Millikin Purchase Fund 1991.155; Cleveland Museum of Art. Figure 2. Avalokitesvara from an Aṣṭasāhasrika Prajñāpāramitā . Period: Pala period . Date: early 12 th century . Culture:Bengal, eastern India or Bangladesh . Dimensions: Page: 2 3/4 × 16 7/16 in. (7 × 41.8 cm) . Image: 2 1/2 × 1 15/16 in. (6.4 × 4.9 cm) . Credit Line: Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 2001 . Accession Number: 2001.445 l. Metropolitan Museum. Kālidāsa’s Kumārasa ṃ bhava , celebrating the birth of the god Skanda to Śiva and Pārvatī , makes ample use of color in its descriptions of the setting of the story and its hero and heroine. The setting for the poem is the great mountain Himālaya, a description of which begins the poem. Kālidāsa uses a puranic myth, that the ancient King Pṛthu milked the earth, which had taken the form of a cow, to Figure 2. Avalokitesvara from an Astasahasrika Prajñaparamita. Period: Pala period. Date: early 12 th century. Culture:Bengal, eastern India or Bangladesh. Dimensions: Page: 2 3 / 4 × 16 7 / 16 in (7 × 41.8 cm). Image: 2 1 / 2 × 1 15 / 16 in. (6.4 × 4.9 cm). Credit Line: Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 2001. Accession Number: 2001.445 l. Metropolitan Museum There is considerable evidence that sculptures like this one were regularly painted ( Zin 2012 , pp. 149–67). The loss of their color gives us an incomplete understanding of the e ff ects of color in art The colors on a painting do not give us an entirely adequate idea of how color in sculpture would have been experienced. The medium of an art work significantly a ff ects our experience of color ( Gage 2005 , p. 9). That early and medieval Indian sculptures were painted should not surprise us, given recent

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Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 3 of 20 work on Greek sculptures that has revealed traces of paint. Reconstructions of painted Greek sculptures are startling in the brilliance and variety of the colors ( Brinkmann et al. 2017 ). Color, whether in the visual arts or in literature, was a vital component of the aesthetic and often the religious experience in India. The importance of color in Sanskrit literature is apparent from its beginnings and if anything increases over the centuries as descriptions become more and more elaborate Kalidasa’s Kumarasam . bhava , celebrating the birth of the god Skanda to ´Siva and Parvati, makes ample use of color in its descriptions of the setting of the story and its hero and heroine. The setting for the poem is the great mountain Him¯alaya, a description of which begins the poem. Kalidasa uses a puranic myth, that the ancient King Prthu milked the earth, which had taken the form of a cow, to tell us that Mount Himalaya is resplendent with many colors and aglow with its luminous plants. Here is the verse, 1.2, “Commanded by King Prthu, all the other mountains took Mount Himalaya as their calf, and with Mount Meru, skilled in milking, they milked the earth to yield shining gemstones and luminous plants.” The commentary of Mallinatha explains that since a calf is so dear to its mother, it gets the best of whatever there is, in this case, the best jewels and glowing plants. It is understood that jewels have rich color; this combination of color and radiance will be a hallmark of classical Indian descriptions. In the next verse, the poet adds whiteness to the variegated colors of the jewels, reassuring us that the snow on Mount Himalaya, which is the source of innumerable gemstones, does not detract from its beauty, any more than the spot on the moon, with all its bright rays, detracts from the moon’s loveliness. The mountain Himalaya also has minerals that give it color, here a red color. For the poet, the minerals on its peaks cast their redness onto the clouds, creating an untimely sunset. Heavenly damsels adorn themselves with these minerals, getting ready for their lovers (4). In verse 7, heavenly maidens write their love letters with a red mineral paint; in this verse, too, the mountain is both white and colorful. Other colors are provided by the peacocks, their feathers spread open by the wind (15). As the verses on the gemstones and luminescent plants make clear, it is not just color that makes the mountain so distinctive; it is also light. And so it is no surprise that dark caves, where semi-divine beings make love, are illuminated by plants that glow in the night (10). It is not only the setting of the poem that is so rich in color. Kalidasa also describes the goddess Parvati in some detail, and there too colors are important. Indeed, he o ff ers high praise for painting in color when he tells us that puberty makes the beauty of the young goddess shine forth, just as applying paint with a brush makes a drawing come alive (32). We can surmise that one of the things that puberty does is bestow upon her body the colors associated with the mature woman. Her smile is likened to a flower resting on a young sprout or a pearl set into coral, being white from her teeth and pink from her lips (44), while her breasts are white with dark nipples (40). Her darting glances are like quivering blue lotuses (46), while her black eyebrows seem to have been painted in collyrium with a fine brush (47) Several things stand out in verses like these. The first is the attention given to color in the descriptions of the setting and the body of the goddess. The second is the use of colored objects, gemstones, for example, in addition to specific color words to denote colors. Also noteworthy is the use of familiar natural objects as similes to enrich the description of colors. We shall see that the use of things from nature as similes along with color words or by themselves as substitutes for color words is widespread in texts of all genres and across religions. Another point worth emphasizing is what will be a common pairing of colors and light or radiance. Hue and luster are equally emphasized in the treatment of color in written sources As descriptive passages in literature grow more and more complex with time, so does the language of colors. The 13 th century Vikramtakaurava , a drama by the Jain poet Hastimalla, includes elaborate descriptions of settings and characters. The play is about the marriage of a Kuru king Jaya with Sulocana, princess of Kasi 2 Hastimalla makes excellent use of the convention that particular flowers are associated with specific colors and may be called upon by a poet as substitutes for color words: 2 For a summary of the plot ( Warder 2004 , pp. 829–49).

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Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 4 of 20 to readers familiar with flowers in nature and literature, simply naming flowers in descriptions of gardens or forests evokes their vibrant colors. The play also has a fulsome description of a garden in which the colors of some of the flowering trees are also described in complex similes. The punnaga flowers have petals that are white like pure silver, with filaments that have the orange color of gold powder and a center that is round and pink like a piece of coral. Madhuka flowers that have just fallen from the tree are white like pearls, while kimsuka flowers are blood-red, as if soaked in the blood of lovers whose hearts were broken; they are red like the nails of the beast that is the God of Love. It is not only flowers that make the garden so colorful; fruits too are known for their color. In a verse the colorful fruits are also an erotic stimulus, for they remind the king who is looking at them of the colors on the bodies of women. Ripe pomegranates, fallen from the trees, are the color that their red lips give to the teeth of women from Bengal (they are pink, in other words), while fragrant citron fruits, the color of molten gold, resemble the cheeks of women from Kashmir 3 Even an aging bawd provides the poet with an opportunity to revel in color ( Vikramtakaurava verse 14, p. 49). The old crone has dyed her hair black, but the color is growing out. Her hair is its natural white at the roots, the color of a young barley sprout; then it becomes purple like madder and then reddish like the tubes of a kankeli flower; next it takes on the hue of the tender filament of a ´sirisa flower and finally at the tips it is the color of a crow’s feathers 4 Colors are also one of the identifying markers of regional origin; kings from Kashmir are fair-skinned with red hair, while kings from Andhra have dark skin the color of black aloes wood ( Vikramtakaurava verses 23 and 24, p. 53) 5 The clear association of fruits, flowers and birds with specific colors allows the author precisely to pinpoint the color intended in a description, and in other cases to substitute these color-bearers for color words themselves 6 Kalidasa’s poem and Hastimalla’s drama amply attest to the importance of color in descriptions of place and human form across time, literary genre, and religious a ffi liation. Dazzling colors are given their due in equally dazzling language to create a world of radiant beauty. We have some indication that the pleasure of experiencing color was not confined to the world of literature. A passage in a Buddhist monastic code opens with a brief description of the lodgings of non-Buddhist ascetics: they were white-washed and had black floors; their walls had painted red decorations. So beautiful were they that people flocked to see them. Learning of this, the Buddha permitted his monks to white-wash their monasteries, paint the floors black, and apply yellow orpiment to decorate the walls. He did draw the line at having the walls painted with figures of men and women. People would have to come to appreciate the beautiful colors of the monastery buildings ( Vinaya C ulavagga , para. 298–99) But if colors in poetry and architecture were primarily a sensory delight, they had other numerous and complex associations in early and medieval texts. I begin with a survey of some of these with the following questions in mind. What kinds of texts talked about color? What were the primary colors? How are colors identified? What is the significance of color? From this more general discussion that draws from texts of very di ff erent genres, I then turn specifically to see how colors figure in some narrative texts in Jainism and Buddhism. In my closing comments, I ask whether there is any evidence that the colors specified in a written text served as a guide for visual artists 7 3 nimmalar uppacchavidhavalujjaladalai tavanijjacunnasariccharunakesarukkarai viddumakhamdavilohiavattulakanniai punnaipupphai; thoramutthahalaphalihadhavalai . . mahuakusumai; kham . diajanahiaukkham . danasam . kam . tavahalaruhirak addamasaram . jiai uddamamaaram . dasaddalanaharam . kurai . . kim . suakusumai Vikram . takaurava p. 28. Verse 16, p. 29 for the pomegranates (gaudinam adharadalarucaramjitam. damtapanktim.) and citron fruits, (nistaptasvarnavarnachavi and kasmiragandasobha) 4 m ule valayavaprarohadhavalan labdhasvabhavam . stato mam . jisthaprasaracchavin atha caratka ˙nkelinalarunan / pascanmugdhasarisakesararucah. pramte ca kakacchadacchayan m urdhni kacan karotyapasarann niliraso bhavitah. 5 gauratvisah karkasababhrukesah.; kalagurukalavarnah. 6 Indian texts are not unique in defining color by reference to something in the natural world. Chinese texts did the same, for example, the Shiming, Explanation of Names , ca. 100 CE, cited in ( Kuhn 2012 , p. 22). Because color terms were so imprecise, medieval European medical writers often referred to objects in daily life in order to convey the more precise meaning of a color term ( Hickey 2015 , p. 6). Helen Hickey, “Medical Diagnosis and the Colour Yellow in Early Modern England”, E-rea, Revue é lectronique d’ é tudes sur le monde anglophone , 12.2, 2015, p. 6 7 I do not consider iconographic texts and the well-known practice of color-coding deities.

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Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 5 of 20 2. Talking about Color A useful place to begin our explanation of traditional Indian concepts of color is with some of the earliest philosophical speculations. In the Upanisads and early philosophical systems like the Samkhya, the building blocks of the physical world, the basic constituents of matter, are colored. Chapter 6 of the Chandogya Upanisad with its creation theory may be taken as an example. An inchoate, undi ff erentiated but existent first cause creates three entities: heat( tejas ), water ( apas ) and food ( anna ) 6.2.3 and 6.2.4 In a further step that will give rise to the objects in the world as we know them, the three entities are then each split into three parts and everything that is subsequently created will have this three-fold nature. Every object in the world is thus a combination of heat, water and food, and we know this because all objects are also tri-colored and their three colors are the three colors of their constituents The Upanisad gives a few examples of heat substances that are in fact made up of all three constituents It starts with fire and tells us that the red ( rohita ) in fire is tejas or heat (Chandogya 6; Olivelle 1996, pp. 148–49). The black or krsna component is food or anna and the white or ´sukla is water (6.4.1). Then come the sun, the moon, and lightning. In his commentary, ´Samkara tells us that the same holds true for substances that are predominantly water or food 8 In another passage, the Upanisad knows five colors: brown ( pi ˙ngala ), white ( sukla ), blue / black ( nila ), yellow ( pita ) and red or lohita (8.6.1) 9 These are the colors of the five fluids or rasas that fill the channels that come from the heart. In his commentary, ´Samkara explains that the color pi ˙ngala comes from a combination of the humor bile, pitta , with a small amount of the humor phlegm, kapha ; when kapha predominates in the combination the fluid is white; when pitta is combined with an preponderance of the third humor, the wind humor, the fluid is black; when the two humors of pitta and kapha are equal, the fluid is yellow; when blood predominates the fluid is red. He adds that those who are still curious should consult a medical man ( Chandogya 8.6.1). A similar passage appears in the Brhad¯aran.yaka Upanisad 4.3.20, and in his commentary there ´Sam . kara states that as the amount of each of the humors changes, the colors of the fluids will change and that there are many more possibilities than just these basic ones that are named. In these early Upanisads , all of the physical world has color and it is by color that we know the underlying reality of what we experience. Our own bodies are not excluded from this; they are also polychrome Whether the building blocks of the material world are many or one, the source of material creation is colored. The ´Svetasvatara Upanisad 4.5 describes the root cause of matter as one, unborn, and tri-colored, red, white and black. These are the colors of her constituent gunas, rajas, sattva, and tamas . The source of the material world as one, feminine and composed of these three constituents is a fundamental tenet of the Samkhya system. Vacaspati Misra in his commentary to the Samkhyakarikas cites the ´Svetasvatar a verse ( Tattvakaumudi p. 41; ´Svetasvatara verse 4.5) 10 These gunas are indirectly responsible for our character; there are people who have a preponderance of one or the other and are therefore either good and wise ( sattva ), passionate and easily angered ( rajas ), or deluded and stupid( tamas ) 11 Given the importance of color in early philosophical speculation, it should come as no surprise when we turn to an entirely di ff erent early text, Bharata’s work on dramaturgy, the Natyasastra, and learn that colors characterize both the external world and internal emotional states. They reflect or represent emotional states, moral values, social distinction and even realms of rebirth. A discussion of 8 abannavisayanyapyud¯aharan.anyevameva ca drastavyaniti manyate srutih / tejasa udaharanamupalaksanartham / r upavattvatspastarthatvopapattesca / commentary to 6.4.2.3.4 9 There is some uncertainty about the exact equivalent of pi ˙ngala . (Olivelle 1996, p. 170) gives orange. The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 4.3.20 uses the term harita instead of pita 10 Ajam ekam . lohitasuklakrsnam 11 Nyaya and Vaisesika authors recognize color, r upa , as an essential property of three substances, earth, water, and fire, but are otherwise uninterested in describing colors in any detail. The statement in Vatsy¯ayana’s commentary to Nyaya s utra 3,1,57 is typical and implies that the colors are well known: r upani suklaharitadini.

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Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 6 of 20 colors appears in several places in the text. In chp. 6, each of the rasas or poetic sentiments is assigned a color. “Love is dark green, humor is said to be white; pity is grey, and the fearsome is said to be red. The heroic is known to be golden and terror, black. Disgust is dark blue and wonder is yellow.” 12 Abhinavagupta in his commentary explains that the rasas are assigned color to aid in meditation when one meditates on them. He adds that others say the colors also refer to skin color, and here I presume of the actor / character who is involved in a particular rasa ( Abhinavabharati p. 701) 13 That colors refer to or reflect emotional states finds a counterpart in many other texts in which colors are assigned a moral value. It is commonplace in Buddhist texts to have karma, good and bad deeds, described as white and black, respectively. In the avadanas , the Buddha tells the monks again and again that the retribution for solely black deeds is totally black; the retribution for totally white deeds is purely white, while the retribution for deeds that are a mixture of white and black is mixed ( Divyavadana 14.20) 14 This mixed color can, however, be the best one in some circumstances. One Buddhist story tells us that the breast milk of a wet nurse whose skin is excessively dark is too cold for a baby, while the milk of a wet nurse who is excessively light skinned is too hot ( M ugapakkhajatakavannana 538) 15 More often, however, black is bad and white is good. Thus, the correct Buddhist path is called the white path or sukkapatha , while the wrong path of the non-Buddhist heretics is the black path or kanhapatipada 16 In Jainism, the association of colors with emotions / moral states is even more complex. In Jainism, people can have six or in some texts seven di ff erent hues or complexions. These are called lesyas, a term that simply means color or luster in an early canonical text of the ´Svet¯ambaras, the S uyagad.anga or S utrakrta˙nga, verse 364 17 Chapter 34 of the Uttar¯adhyayana s utra is devoted to the lesyas The commentators go to great length to try to explain exactly what these lesyas are. ´Santis uri, who o ff ers the most complicated explanations, ends his ruminations with my favorite phrase, “ tattvam . punah kevalino vidanti ”, “The true state of a ff airs only the Omniscient Ones know” (s rimantyuttaradhyayanani , p. 651 a). One of his explanations is that the lesyas refer not to the body but to the complexion of the soul itself, being a transformation of the soul; other explanations define them as material particles that are in turn responsible for the duration of certain types of karma. The lesyas are black, dark blue, grey, shining gold, pink, and white 18 The s utra then explains what each color is like and it does so by referring to things in nature, the color of which would have been readily known by the s utra’s audience. As noted above, it is commonplace in Indian literature of every genre to refer to colors either with an explicit mention of something that has the color or even by just naming the object that has the color. Thus something can be white like a conch shell or it can be conch-shell -colored 19 In addition, referring to an object the color of which is known can help pin down the meaning of color terms which are often fluid. I give here only a few examples from the section on lesyas , but I will return to this below The black lesya is the color of a rain cloud, or a bu ff alo horn; the blue is the color of the tail of a casa bird or lapis lazuli. Grey is like the neck of a pigeon; pink is the color of the rising sun or a parrot’s beak; gold is the color of turmeric or orpiment, white is like the conch shell, milk or pearls The Uttaradhyayana s utra was frequently illustrated. For the chapter on the lesyas , the illustrations depicted a parable that was told in the commentaries to the text, about a group of hungry men who 12 syamo bhavati sr. ˙ngarah. sito hasyah. prakirtitah / kapotah. karunascaiva rakto raudrah. prakirtitah // BhN6.42 // gauro virastuvijñeyah. krsnascaiva bhayanakah / nilavarnastu bibhatsah. pitascaivadbhutah. smrtah // BhN6.43 13 varnabhidhanam. p ujadau dhyana upayogi. Mukharage’pityanye 14 ti bhiksava ekantakrsnanamekantakrsno vipakah., ek¯antasuklanam. dharmanamekantasuklo vipakah., vyatimisranam vyatimisrah / 15 atikalikaya khiram . atisitalam . hoti, atiodataya khiram . atiunham . hoti 16 For example, the Apannaka jataka, Tesu ye apannakatthanam. aggahesum., te sukkapatipadam. patipanna. Ye dutiyam “purato bhavitabbam . udakena”ti takkaggahasa ˙nkhatam . aniyyanikakaranam . aggahesum . . Te kanhapatipadam . patipanna 17 mahii majjham . mi thite nagim . de pannayate s uriyasuddhalese / Evam . sirie bh urivanne manorame joyai accimali 18 Kinha nila ka u ya te u pamha taheva ya sukka, p. 651 a. (Jacobi 1985) translates te u as yellow and padma as red 19 The Dasakumaracarita of Dandin provides a striking example of this in the opening description of the king, whose fame is described as like the autumn moon, jasmine, camphor, snow, a pearl garland, a lotus filament, a swan, Indra’s elephant, milk, ´Siva’s loud laugh, Mount Kailasa, hemp flowers, but with no word for white saradindughanasaraniharaharamrnalamaralasuragajaniraksiragirisattahasakailasakasa.

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Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 7 of 20 come upon a fruit tree. The lesyas in the list represent states of the soul in ascending order; black is the worst, white is the best. The person with the black lesya just wants to cut the whole tree down to get at a fruit; the person with the white lesya eschews any violence to the tree and is willing only to take a fruit that has already fallen. In some of the illustrations, the di ff erent lesyas are reflected in the skin color of the men; in others, they are shown by the colors of their clothing Illustrations of the lesyas in which skin color and clothing reflect character bring us back to the Natyasastra , in which skin color and the color of a person’s clothing have a wide range of significance Thus, in chp. 21 we learn that the semi-divine vidyadhara women wear white (21.57), while demon women, raksasis, wear black and have jewels that are made of sapphire, indranila (21.62–63). In the case of human women, dress and color reflect the place where the women are from (21.66). Over the centuries, painters seem to have followed this general practice. A frieze from the 16 th century at Lepaksi shows women of distinctively di ff erent skin color and di ff erently patterned clothing 20 In the wall painting of the Telapattajataka from Mulkirigala Sri Lanka, of the 19 th century, Figure 3 , the artist has taken pains to distinguish the five companions to the Bodhisattva by dress and skin color. This kind of color-coding recalls the kind of color-coding we see in iconographic texts Religions 2020 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20 come upon a fruit tree. The leśyās in the list represent states of the soul in ascending order; black is the worst, white is the best. The person with the black leśyā just wants to cut the whole tree down to get at a fruit; the person with the white leśyā eschews any violence to the tree and is willing only to take a fruit that has already fallen. In some of the illustrations, the different l eśyas are reflected in the skin color of the men; in others, they are shown by the colors of their clothing. Illustrations of the leśyās in which skin color and clothing reflect character bring us back to the Nā ṭ ya śā stra , in which skin color and the color of a person’s clothing have a wide range of significance Thus, in chp. 21 we learn that the semi-divine vidyādhara women wear white (21.57), while demon women, rāk ṣ as ī s, wear black and have jewels that are made of sapphire, indranīla (21.62 – 63). In the case of human women, dress and color reflect the place where the women are from (21.66). Over the centuries, painters seem to have followed this general practice. A frieze from the 16 th century at Lepaksi shows women of distinctively different skin color and differently patterned clothing 20 In the wall painting of the Telapattajātaka from Mulkirigala Sri Lanka, of the 19 th century, Figure 3, the artist has taken pains to distinguish the five companions to the Bodhisattva by dress and skin color. This kind of color-coding recalls the kind of color-coding we see in iconographic texts. Figure 3. Telapatta Jātaka from Mulkirigala, Sri Lanka, courtesy Osmund Bopearachchi Men in the Nā ṭ ya śā stra are treated separately from women. They are supposed to paint their limbs with one of the four primary colors (21.77 – 78). In the Pali Buddhist Vinaya, Mahāvagga, Bhesajjavatthu this seems to be exactly what the Licchavi men have done. The text tells us that some of the Licchavi men are blue, some yellow, some red and some white. Buddhaghosa in his commentary to this passage remarks that this is not their natural color; they have used body paint 21 The colors that the Licchavis have used are the primary colors in the Nā ṭ ya śā stra , white, dark blue/black, yellow and red, the colors that men are supposed to use as body paint 22 Buddhaghosa seems to consider these four colors as the basic colors; in his meditation manual, the Visuddhimagga , IV.24, in describing the earth kasina, he instructs the practitioner to construct a disk of clay that is not blue, yellow, red or white. It is to be made from the clay like that of the river Ganga, which is of the 20 Vīrabhadra temple; photograph artstor https://library.artstororg/#/asset/ARTSTOR103_41822003575691;prevRouteTS=1558985157727. 21 Tattha na tesaṃ pakativaṇṇā nīlā , nīlavilepanānaṃ vicittatāvasenetaṃ vuttaṃ paragraph 289. The same description of the Licchavis appears in the Mahaparinibbāna sutta . 22 sito nīlaśca pītaśca caturtho rakta eva ca//BhN21.78//ete svabhāvajā varṇā yaiḥ kāryaṃ tvaṅgavartanam/. Figure 3. Telapatta Jataka from Mulkirigala, Sri Lanka, courtesy Osmund Bopearachchi Men in the Natyasastra are treated separately from women. They are supposed to paint their limbs with one of the four primary colors (21.77–78). In the Pali Buddhist Vinaya, Mahavagga, Bhesajjavatthu this seems to be exactly what the Licchavi men have done. The text tells us that some of the Licchavi men are blue, some yellow, some red and some white. Buddhaghosa in his commentary to this passage remarks that this is not their natural color; they have used body paint 21 The colors that the Licchavis have used are the primary colors in the Natyasastra , white, dark blue / black, yellow and red, the colors that men are supposed to use as body paint 22 Buddhaghosa seems to consider these four colors as the basic colors; in his meditation manual, the Visuddhimagga , IV.24, in describing the earth kasina, 20 Virabhadra temple; photograph artstor https: // library.artstororg / # / asset / ARTSTOR103_41822003575691;prevRouteTS = 1558985157727 . 21 Tattha na tesam . pakativanna nila, nilavilepananam . vicittatavasenetam . vuttam . paragraph 289. The same description of the Licchavis appears in the Mahaparinibbana sutta 22 sito nilasca pitasca caturtho rakta eva ca // BhN21.78 // ete svabhavaja varna yaih. karyam. tva ˙ngavartanam / .

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Canto, Gerard, Robe, Sick, Nardi, Gain, Sveta, Colas, Raw, Sad, Rub, Rules, Single, Base, Dove, Shah, Sah, Ability, Deep, Hand, Dye, Monk, Rag, Dutt, Cola, Fit, Radha, Reading, Pandu, English, Duck, Comment, Harm, Kanha, Mahara, Aruna, Mental, Marker, Tara]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 8 of 20 he instructs the practitioner to construct a disk of clay that is not blue, yellow, red or white. It is to be made from the clay like that of the river Ganga, which is of the color aruna 23 Much later in time, the god Krsna will be said to appear in the four di ff erent world ages in these four colors: white, red, yellow and black in that order. In the case of Krsna, these are the color of his skin and not body paint ( Brhatstotraratnakara p. 159). In some Vaisnava poetry, the dark color of Krsna’s skin becomes a kind of metonymy for Krsna himself. Thus Radha, awaiting his arrival, looks at the dark color of the forest and the black clouds above and sees everywhere her longed-for Krsna ( May uracandrika canto 7; Das 1965 , p. 41). In the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, 6.7-2, Radha mistakes the darkness for Krsna and hugs and kisses it The Natyasastra calls these four pigments natural colors, svabhavaja , in contrast to the colors that are made from combining these, the sam . yogaja colors, which are called secondary colors or upavarna (21.79). Combining white and black gives grey ( karandava ) (21.80), while combining white and yellow gives o ff -white ( pandu ) 21.81 24 Combining white and red gives pink or padma (21.81). Yellow and blue give green ( harita ), while blue and red give burnt-red kasaya (21.82), and red and yellow together give gold ( gaura ) (21.82–83). There are many other kinds of combinations that can then be made from these as a base The primary colors are not always four in number. The Visnudharmottarapurana 3.40.16, lists five primary colors, white ( sveta ), yellow ( pita ), red ( vilomata, myrobalan), black ( krsna ) and dark blue ( nila ) 25 The text describes various combinations of these and the raw materials from which the paints are made. They include organic and inorganic materials. The painter is to combine the paints as he sees fit to make hundreds and thousands of colors Colors are of interest not only to painters, but also to cloth dyers. The Buddhist rules for monks prohibit monks from wearing robes or sandals that are of a single, even color. The colors include dark blue ( nila ), yellow ( pita ), red ( lohita ), purple ( mañjittha ), black ( kanha ), and cloths dyed with something called mahara ˙nga and mahanamara ˙nga . Not surprisingly, Buddhaghosa in his commentary explains all but one of these colors by reference to flowers, with the exception of mahara ˙nga, which is the color of the back of a scorpion, and mahanama which is defined as a very deep red 26 Buddhaghosa explains what a monk should do if he receives such a cloth; he is to take any kind of dye that he has at hand and a rag and rub the cloth so that the cloth will no longer be of a solid unbroken color. The color of an ascetic’s robe could also be an important marker of sectarian identity. Cloth dyes, particularly the ease or di ffi culty with which they may be washed o ff or simply wear o ff , become metaphors for mental states as divergent from each other as passion and scriptural learning 27 Ritual specialists were equally attuned to the unique properties of colors; the Vimanarcanakalpa chp. 43 tells us that di ff erent colored flowers are to be used in rituals that have di ff erent aims (Vimanarcanakalpa 1926, pp. 292–93). Thus, white flowers are to be used for rituals of pacification, while yellow are to be used for rituals designed for material gain, and black for rituals to subdue someone and rituals to do someone harm 28 23 nilalapitalohitaodatasambhedavasena hi cattaro pathavikasinadosa. Tasma niladivannam. mattikam. aggahetva ga ˙ngavahe mattikasadisaya arunavannaya mattikaya kasinam. katabbam.. The di ffi culty is with the precise color aruna , which is often given in the dictionary as red. It must be distinguished from lohita , which is prohibited. It is also worth noting that the practitioner is to avoid focusing on the color of the kasina disk; color is an obstruction to the practice of meditation 24 Pandu is the color of people who are sick or frightened or sad; it is di ffi cult to find an exact English equivalent, as is the case for many color terms. A karandava is a duck; a variant reading gives kapota , dove. This and the color for pink, padma or lotus, are examples of the use of a familiar colored object to denote a color 25 ( Shah 1990 ) o ff ers Myrobalan for vilomata with no comment. For comments on painting in this and other texts ( Nardi 2007 , pp. 291–303) 26 Vinaya, Mahavagga, Cammakkhandako para. 246 and Civarakkhandako para. 372. The explanations of the commentator Buddhaghosa are given in the Cammakkhanda passage. The same prohibition is found in the M ulasarvastivada vinaya, Civaravastu (Dutt 1945, p. 95) 27 On passion ´Sr.˙ngaramañjarikatha p. 12; on the ability to retain the teaching, see the 15 th c. Jain Upadesaratnakara , tara ˙ngas 4 and 5 28 I thank Gerard Colas for this reference.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Song, Bee, Shade, Lavish, Bees, Flaw, Standard, Care, Stone, Stark, Lion, Bloom, Conception, Chaya, Long, Campa, Minor, Kohl, Cha, Anjana, Large, Part, Crescent, Under, Chavi, Bulls, Grove, Sheen, Lies, Full, Peacock, Bimba, Queen, Lamp, Rut, Asoka, Look]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 9 of 20 I turn now to Buddhist and Jain narratives to see what use is made of these many opportunities to color the world in all these myriad colors 3. Coloring the World The most natural place to look for color in a story is in the setting and the description of the characters. I begin with a Jain s utra, which in its exuberant use of color highlights what is possible in a text. The Aupapatika S utra is classified as one of the upa ˙ngas or minor canonical texts by the ´Svetambara Jains. The text serves as the template for all of the other canonical texts; its lavish descriptions appear in abbreviated forms elsewhere, and commentators direct their readers to the full form in the Aupapatika After a fulsome description of the city of Campa the author describes the shrine of the Yaksa P urnabhadra, the Punnabhadda Ceiya, which lies just outside the city. The ceiya itself has flags and worshippers have scattered their flowers of five-di ff erent colors; it is fragrant with incense, and frequented by crowds of people who come to worship. The ceiya is surrounded by a forest grove and it is here that the author really begins to describe the colors of the ceiya. The forest grove is black, has a black sheen; it is dark blue, and has a dark blue sheen; it is green and has a green sheen. Again, it is black and with a black shadow; dark blue with dark blue shadow; green with green shadow ( Aupapatika p. 72). The trees are always in bloom and the forest resounds with the song of many di ff erent kinds of birds, all individually named The commentator to this passage, the 10 th c. Abhayadevas uri, takes some care with the colors He remarks that the forest shows these di ff erent colors in di ff erent places. He explains that dark blue, nila, means a color like that of the neck of a peacock, may uragalavat . Green or harita , is like the tail of a parrot, sukapucchavat . Abhayadeva also states that in calling the forest black and then saying that it provides black shade the author is not guilty of the flaw of repetition; a shadow is a substance that is produced by the occlusion of the sun 29 In the center of the forest is a large Asoka tree, which is also described in detail. It is surrounded by many di ff erent species of trees, each named Under the Asoka tree is a special stone slab. It is black color and the author provides a long list of things which it resembles in color. It is like kohl ( añjana ), like the garment that the god Balabhadra wears; like a bu ff alo’s horn; like a ristaka jewel; like various plants; it is the color of the pupil of the eye. The commentator explains that it is in fact nila , dark blue, although the text calls it black, kinha ( Aupapatika p. 77). It is decorated with various designs, and the text provides a standard list of the bhatticitta or paintings (often wall paintings). They include fabulous beasts ( ihamiya ), bulls, horses, people, fabulous sea creatures ( magara ), birds, creepers and more 30 We are introduced to the king and queen and then to the Jina Mahavira. After a list of standard epithets, best of men, lion among men, rut elephant among men, titthakara, perfectly enlightened one, we are treated to a long description of his body, and this description, like that of the forest, emphasizes colors. He has the most excellent skin color ( chavi ); his most excellent, perfectly healthy, incomparable flesh is stark white ( niraya ˙nkauttamapasatthaaiseyaniruvamapale ); his body is radiant and his hair is dark black. The text here gives another list of black things with which his hair shares the same color. They include lamp black, a bee, a black gemstone. His scalp is red, and here instead of a color word the author just provides a list of red things: his scalp is like a dalima flower, like gold. Abhayadeva suggests that it is the color of red-gold ( Aupapatika p. 84). His forehead is like the crescent moon and his face like the full moon His eyebrows are black, and again we get a list of black things that they are like: black bees, a line of black clouds. The white part of his eyes is white like a full blown lotus. His lips are pink like polished coral, a bimba fruit, and his teeth are white, like among other things the crescent moon, a conch, the froth of fresh cow’s milk, jasmine. His tongue and palate are red like gold that has been 29 Chaya cadity¯avaran.ajanyo vastuvisesah.. On the Jain conception of shadows, see ( Grano ff 2004 , pp. 331–35) 30 Abhayadeva glosses ihamiya as wolves, vrka . He also notes that in some texts this stone slab is described slightly di ff erently ( Aupapatika p. 77).

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Beard, Jonathan, Day, Blossom, Prince, Final, Mark, Suka, Hinduism, Exceptional, Born, Roman, Lush, Ratta, Deer, Dawn, Romans, Marks, Walters, Past, Lefevre, Ruddy, Soles, Father, Focus]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 10 of 20 purified by fire and his palms are red with nails slightly pink. Even the hair on his body is described; it is black ( Aupapatika pp. 85–87) The description of Mahavira continues, but this should su ffi ce to show the importance the author places on describing every inch of Mahavira’s body and the extent to which color is important in the description. The description is generally based on the standard auspicious marks or laksanas for an exceptional human being that Jainism shares with Buddhism and Hinduism. It is more appropriate to a prince than an ascetic; it includes, for example, precise details about his hair and beard, which are not strictly speaking appropriate to Mahavira. The Jain text also has a close parallel in a Buddhist text on painting, the Citralaksana of Nagnajit, with which it is closely contemporary. The Citralaksana as it assigns various colors to di ff erent parts of the body may have also based its descriptions on the standard list of auspicious marks. Lips are to be red like a bimba fruit (3.37), while the soles of the feet, the palms of the hands and nails should be red (3. 61; 3.69; 3.82). The teeth should be white like jasmine (3.105) and the tongue and palate should be red (3.107). Hair should be dark, like the neck of a peacock, a bee or collyrium (3.111). The Citralaksana, like the Aupapatika, often uses such similes to expand the description of colors 31 The Aupapatika uses both direct words to denote color, ratta ( rakta ) for red, kinha or krsna for black, dhavala for white, ayamba or atamra for pink, and similes. Objects of a particular color are often mentioned along with a color word to heighten or pin down the precise color denoted by the color word. Colored objects may even be used alone to stand in for a color word. The description of the forest emphasizes both color and sheen; the grove is black and of black sheen, kinhe kinobhase Radiance, luster, shine are as important as hue, which is in keeping with the frequent references to gemstones in descriptions here and in other Indian texts 32 There are other passages in this text equally rich in colors, for example the description of early morning, where the ruddy dawn is like the color of a lotus, an Asoka blossom, a kim . suka flower, a parrot’s beak ( Aupapatika p. 94). Color is essential to the experience of the world of this text in every way; Mahavira will come to preach a sermon, but where he preaches, what he looks like, what the day looks like, all of these details are filled with color When we turn to Buddhist texts, we can see at once that we are in a very di ff erent textual world, whether we look at Pali suttas or Sanskrit texts. The Pali suttas begin by stating where the Buddha preached the text; in the jatakas typically the text also includes a description of the circumstances that prompted the Buddha to tell the story of the past. We are, however, given no details about the place where the Buddha delivered his sermon that parallel the lush descriptions of the Jain Aupapatika 33 In the Mahayana s utras, any description of the place where the preaching occurs is displaced by long incantatory lists of the monks and Bodhisattvas in the audience. In the rare case in which the body of the Buddha is described in the Pali texts, that description too is brief. Thus in the Apannakajataka , the heretics see the Buddha, whose face is as beautiful as the full moon, punnacandasasirikam. mukham, whose body is adorned by the primary and secondary marks, and who projects rays from his body. While a few of these marks involve the color of a body part (white teeth, a golden body, dark hair, pink palms, pink tongue), these details were clearly not deemed su ffi ciently important for our authors to single them out for explicit mention. It is only one mark in particular that is consistently noted; this is the golden body of the Buddha. Indeed, the body of the Buddha is golden not only in his final rebirth as the Buddha, but even in many of his previous rebirths. Thus, even when he is born as a deer, he is golden in color ( Nigrodhamigajataka 12). So essential is his golden color that its loss is an indication that he is unwell, physically or mentally. In one jataka , the Bodhisattva is a young prince. He hears his father order the corporal punishment of four thieves and cringes at the brutality of kingship. He is 31 The Sanskrit version of this text is a reconstruction from Tibetan. For details, see ( Lefevre 2011 , p. 102) 32 ( Gage 2005 , p. 16) notes that the Romans also valued shine and emphasized gold and silver in their descriptions of buildings 33 Jonathan Walters, in his paper at the Edinburgh conference , detailed the lush descriptions of place in the Apadanas . The Jatakas and their commentary also can be rich in descriptive passages. My focus here has been only on the settings of the Buddha’s sermons at the opening of a text.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Top, Yas, Dull, Ram, Priya, Hell, Desire, Goes, Ayan, Coin, Fast, Goldsmith, Nirvana, East, Heaven, Ananda, Ill, Precious, Amra, Yojana, Palace, Pitch, Taya, Sign, Knowledge, Nama, Gem, Kayo, Vaid, Sya, Jam, Hope, Pass, Voice]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 11 of 20 certain that his father will go to hell for having so much pain inflicted on others. He recalls his own past birth as a king, after which he was roasted in hell. Knowing that if he becomes a king again, a hellish rebirth awaits him, he becomes frightened, and his body, formerly gold, loses its luster, like a lotus blossom that has been crushed between one’s fingers 34 The Buddha’s loss of his gold color in his final rebirth in which he will become the Buddha is a sign of his ill health during the fruitless fast he undertook before he discovered the correct path. The Pali Jatakatthakatha describes his change in skin color, “And from not eating his body turned pitch black. That body that had been golden in color was now black in color.” 35 Conversely, a special sheen to the golden body of the Buddha is an auspicious sign. In the Mahaparinibbana sutta , ¯ Ananda notes that the Buddha is particularly glowing; even the precious gold cloth that ¯ Ananda drapes over the Buddha looks dull by comparison. The Buddha tells ¯ Ananda that his body is especially radiant at two particular times, when he achieves Enlightenment and when he is about to pass into Nirvana Adjectives and similes that refer to the Buddha reflect the importance accorded his golden body color; they often denote light and emphasize his radiance. Thus, in the first chapter of the Lalitavistara rays come forth from the Buddha and from those light rays comes a voice telling the gods to take refuge in the Buddha. Many of the adjectives refer to light. The Buddha isjñanaprabha , has the light of knowledge, hatatamasam , the one who has destroyed the darkness, subhraprabham , of pure radiant light ( Lalitavistara verse 1.1). When the Bodhisattva is about to leave the Tusita heaven to descend to earth, no description is given of his person, only of the light that emerges from his body and the miracles it causes ( Lalitavistara pp. 38–89). When the Bodhisattva rests inside his mother’s womb, it is again the luminous splendor of his body that is described. The Bodhisattva is aglow, like a blazing fire on a mountain top that in the darkest part of the night could be seen from a distance of even five yojanas away. He was like gold into which a vaid. urya gem is set ( Lalitavistara p. 50). From the womb, he illuminates the chamber in which his mother is resting; he makes her entire body glow; his light makes radiant the entire palace, and outside the palace every direction is aglow from his splendour, his light, his radiant color ( Lalitavistara p. 50). In the Samghabhedavastu , when the beauty of the newborn Buddha is described it is with this simile: just as a gold coin made of the finest gold from the Jamb u river, polished by a skilled goldsmith, and placed on a white blanket is radiant, glows, shines, in just such a way is the Bodhisattva ´Sakyamuni handsome, pleasing to the sight, comforting to behold. His color surpasses the color of mortals, but is not yet the color of the gods 36 Those who see the Bodhisattva and later the Buddha only long to see him more; they are never satisfied by one glance. As the Buddha goes on to form a community, it is often the very sight of him that creates in his audience a desire to renounce the world and follow his teaching. The Samghabhedavastu along with other texts tells us that what is so compelling about his appearance is his golden color 37 The exception to this almost exclusive focus on the Buddha’s golden body and the rays of light that proceed from it can be found in Sanskrit hymns that were discovered in East Turkestan. While somewhat unusual, their existence suggests that Buddhists also participated in the devotional culture that produced detailed praises of the god’s body. The hymns are fragmentary, but from the verses that remain we can see that the details they provide are entirely consistent with the description of the Jina in the Aupapatika . Thus the Buddha’s nails are pink ( t¯amra ), verse 14 in one hymn, while in a second 34 M ugapakkhajataka 538 Bodhisattassa kañcanavannam. sariram. hatthena parimadditam. padumam. viya milatam dubbannam. ahosi 35 Athassa taya niraharataya paramakasimanappattakayassa suvannavanno kayo kalavanno ahosi . Jatakatthakatha Similarly, the Lalitavistara p. 186, describes how the villagers, seeing the fasting Buddha, cried out, “The ascetic Gautama is black The ascetic Gautama is dark” 36 tadyatha jam . b unadamayi suvarnaniska karmaraparimrsta ahate pandukambala upaniksipta atyartham . bhasate tapati virocate; evam eva sakyamunir bodhisatva abhir upo darsaniyah. prasadikah. atikranto manusam. varnam. asampraptas ca divyam . varnam . 37 In the Ram¯ayan.a , Laksmana has the luster of pure jamb unada gold; he has red eyes and black hair. I hope to make an extensive examination of color on the Ramayana in the future. 6.019.022 a yas caisa daksine parsve suddhajamb unadaprabhah 6.019.022 c visalavaksas tamrakso nilakuñcitam urdhajah.. 6.019.023 a eso ‘sya laksmano nama bhrata pranasamah. priya.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Ruby, Gates, Pada, Cuckoo, North, Cito, Sutra, Elder, Asam, Present, Sma, Bronze, Brilliant, Land, Main, Pond, Multi, Vii, Flavius, Foot, Tira, Belly, Parshad, Parsad, Fall, Court, Crystal, Sage, Friend, Yam, Quality, Imam, Riches, Nka, Tasmin, Gems]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 12 of 20 hymn, his forehead is shining like a blazing fire (8) and his eyebrows are dark like the belly and neck of a cuckoo ( parabhrtodarakanthanile ) (9) ( Schlinglo ff 1955 ). Asvaghosa in the Buddhacarita, 7.56, has a sage describe the face of the Buddha, commenting on his red lips, white teeth, and pink tongue, traits that figure in the list of laksanas . This multi-colored Buddha body also recalls one of the origin stories of the Buddha image, a painting made for King Bimbisara to present to his friend King Rudrayana The painters are unable to capture the likeness of the Buddha, who then causes his shadow to fall on a prepared cloth and instructs the painters to color it in, ra ˙ngaih. purayata ( Divyavadana 37) 38 Despite these references to the importance of color in the experience of seeing the Buddha, more often the emphasis is on a transfigured world of the gold Buddha body; color becomes inseparable from the phenomenon of light, as light rays of the five colors emanate from the body of the Buddha. In Mahayana s utras gold, silver, and brilliant jewels are everywhere, in the wondrous Buddha lands made of gemstones and the Buddha’s miraculous transformations. Thus, in the Vimalakirtinirdesa s utra 1.17, the Buddha presses his foot down and turns the universe into a gem-studded world 39 In the Bhaisajyaguruvaiduryaprabharaja sutra , the Buddha land is made of vaid. urya gemstones, with gates and walls and palaces and windows of seven kinds of jewels 40 The Buddha world of Amitabha, Sukhavati, is also a world of gemstones, of jewel trees, flowers made of jewels, incense holders made of jewels. Indeed, the Buddha tells Ananda that the jewels in Sukhavati surpass anything that can be seen in the mortal world. The di ff erent jewels are of di ff erent colors; this is a world of radiant and colorful splendor, and it is described throughout the Sukhavativy uha s utra It was not only in Buddhist texts that color and light are brought together and color comes from glittering gemstones in other-worldly realms. Jain texts describe divine temples of the Jina that are made of gemstones and have images made of variegated jewels. The luminous quality of the gemstones is as important as their color. The palms of the hands and feet of these Jina images are made of gold, while the nails are of a ˙nka gems encrusted with rubies. Their legs are of gold and their body hair of black gemstones. Lips of coral conceal teeth of crystal; eyebrows and eyelashes are of black gemstones ( Grano ff 2010 , pp. 335–44) Color and radiance work together to create the magical world of many a palace in Sanskrit literature. King Yudhis.thira’s wondrous court in the Mahabharata is made from gemstones taken from a jeweled mountain north of the fabled Mount Kailasa. Its pillars are of gold and it is radiant like the sun, the moon, a blazing fire. Indeed, its light outshines the light of the blazing sun. Surrounded by a rampart of jewels, it is filled with gemstones and riches. The lotus pond has flowers with leaves made of vaid. urya gems and stalks made of other jewels ( Mahabharata 2.3.16-28). Yudhisthira’s palace is not unlike the palace of Alcinous in the Odyssey, which was also said to be radiant like the sun and moon (Odyssey VII.82-130 cited in Gage 2005, p. 57.) Another ancient Greek writer of the 3 rd c CE, Flavius Philostratus in the Life of Appolonius of Tyana II.24, would describe a temple of the sun in Taxila as housing images of gold and bronze, with shining red and gold walls, and a main cult image made of pearls (Flavius Philostratus cited Gage 2005, p. 26). As we saw when we moved from Kalidasa to Hastimalla, in time descriptions of temples and palaces would grow more and more elaborate; in all the descriptions, not just those of architecture, color and radiance would continue to be inseparable 41 38 This story makes a neat contrast with the contemporary account of the origin of painting in Pliny the Elder Natural History , xxxv, 14. Their painting originates not from color applied to the shadow, but from lines, when the shadow is outlined by a human hand. Reference from ( Stoichita 1997 , p. 7) 39 Vimalakirtinirdesa s utra 1.17 atha bhagavan pada ˙ngusthena imam. trisahasramahasahasram. lokadhatum. parahanti sma / atha khalu tasmin samaye ‘yam trisahasramahasahasro lokadhatur anekaratnasatasahasrasam . cito ‘nekaratnasatasahasrapratyarpitah. samsthito ‘bh ut / tadyathapi nama ratnavy uhasya tathagatasyanantagunaratnavy uho lokadhatus tadr.so ‘yam. lokadhatuh. samdr.syate sma / tatra sa sarvavati parsad ascaryaprapta ratnapadmanisannam atmanam . sam . janite sma 40 vaid uryamayi ca sa mahaprthivi kudyaprakaraprasadatoranagavaksajalaniry uhasaptaratnamayi, yadr.si sukhavati lokadhatus tadr.si | tatra vaid uryanirbhasayam lokadhatau dvau bodhisattvau mahasattvau tesam aprameyanam asam . khyeyanam . bodhisattvanam . mahasattvanam . pramukhau, ekakah. s uryavairocano nama, dvitiyas candravairocanah. 41 Thus, for example, the palace and gardens in Bhoja’s ´Sr.˙ngaramañjarikatha.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Floor, Choice, Less, Key, Feather, Marble, Net, Bed, Rash, Head, Senses, Areas, Ocean, Brooklyn, Lack, Age, Plays, Last, Sure, Indi, Room, Cover, Sta, Ras, Rajasthan, Pitcher]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 13 of 20 4. Reflections I have focused on two very limited scenarios in Buddhist and Jain texts, how a story begins and how the main character, the Buddha or Jina, is described. While I think the contrast I have drawn in the texts is clear, the relevance of these observations for how the Buddha or Jina was depicted in art is perhaps less clear. It is also di ffi cult to determine what role the presence or absence of colors in a narrative plays in how an artist depicted the story. To complicate our inquiry even further, we cannot know for sure in which direction the influence flowed, from text to art or art to text or whether our written version of a story was the source that a painter used 42 Less by way of conclusion and more to stimulate future discussion, I o ff er some reflections on the vagaries of color in art and texts It may be fortuitous that one of the earliest images of the Buddha is in fact gold, on a gold Kushan coin. Gold images of the Buddha would be made across the Buddhist world. By contrast, we have seen that a canonical description of the Jina did not privilege his golden skin color, and this is paralleled by the images. While the marble images of the Jina made in Gujarat and Rajasthan seem close to the description of his white flesh, it is just as likely that the choice of stone was driven by the ready availability of marble in the areas in which these images were made. I think we would be rash to conclude that these images owe their existence to a canonical description of the Jina’s body One of the earliest Jain accounts of the lives of the Jinas is the Kalpas utra . The narrative is rich in descriptions. It begins with the life of the last Jina of our world age, Mahavira. A key event in the life of every Jina is his conception, which is marked by dreams that his mother sees. Mahavira’s mother Trisala’s dreams are told in detail and her bedroom chamber and bed are both elegantly described. The senses most emphasized in the description are smell and touch, as the passage lingers on the many types of incense that made the room fragrant, and the lush softness of the bed and its covers. Nonetheless, there is ample color. The walls, ceiling and floor of her room are painted, and light from many di ff erent kinds of jewels dispels the darkness. There are fragrant flowers of five colors. The bed has a red coverlet and a red netting, that the commentary describes as a mosquito net ( Kalpas utra p. 52) The color that is explicitly mentioned in the description is red, and in fact that is the dominant color of the paintings that illustrate this scene Mahavira is first conceived by a Brahmin woman, but the embryo is transferred to the queen Trisala. The dreams that the two women who conceive him have are identical and are each in technicolor. The first dream is of an elephant that is white, and we get a list of white objects that it surpassed in whiteness, for example the water of the milk ocean, the rays of the moon. The bull that is next seen is also white as is the lion in the next dream. The goddess ´Sri has red nails and black body hair; she wears ornaments of gold and has thick black hair on her head. After this, the mother sees a mostly white garland of flowers, surrounded by black bees. Then follow the sun and moon. The flag that is one of the objects of the dream is richly colored; it has a shining gold sta ff and is topped by peacock feathers of blue, red, yellow and white. On it is a white lion, white like a conch, jasmine, droplet of water, pitcher of silver If we turn to the illustrated manuscripts of the Kalpas utra , we see that it might seem as if the painter was not indi ff erent to the colors of the textual description. On a folio from the Jaunpur Kalpas utra, Figure 4 , now in the Metropolitan Museum, the bed cover is distinctively red. The elephant and bull are white, although the garland and the goddess lack the details in the text. But on another manuscript also from Jaunpur, the bed cover is blue not red, something that never appears in the text 43 Although this is a painting of the newborn Jina Aristanemi, everything is to be exactly as it was for Mahavira. Sometimes the dream objects that are white in the text are gold, as in a Kalpas utra from the Brooklyn 42 ( Green 2018 , pp. 180–88) noted the sparsity of detail in the settings in Pali literature. She suggested that the elaborate detail seen in the late paintings may reflect familiarity with Burmese retellings of jatakas, which embellish the Pali stories 43 ACSAA Michigan 10396169.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Sounds, Foods, Meet, Aim, Hurt, Wait, Pur, Poor, Hazen, Mata, Hang, Ever, Rest, Master, Stars, Patan, Cynthia, Web, Swapna, Else, Market, Creations, House, Lie]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 14 of 20 Museum dated 1472 and made in Patan 44 Color here is an artistic choice in which absolute fidelity to the text is not required; the fashion of the day might have had more to do with the treatment of clothing and furnishings than any of the textual descriptions. Nothing makes this clearer, perhaps, than illustrations of contemporary paintings from the web 45 Religions 2020 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20 of clothing and furnishings than any of the textual descriptions. Nothing makes this clearer, perhaps, than illustrations of contemporary paintings from the web 45 Figure 4. Devānandā’s dreams . Artist:Master of the Jaunpur Kalpasutra (Indian) Date: ca. 1465. Culture: India, (Gujarat, Jaunpur). Medium: Opaque watercolor on paper. Dimensions: Overall: 4 5/8 × 11 1/2 in. (11.8 × 29.2 cm). Classification: Paintings. Credit Line:Purchase, Cynthia Hazen Polsky Gift, 1992. Accession Number: 1992.359. Metropolitan Museum Turning to Buddhism, sometimes a story is remarkably sparse in visual details in the written version and yet paintings of it abound in color and detail. This is the case, for example, with the Telapattajātaka . In this story, the Bodhisattva is one of many children born to the king of Benaras. With all those siblings, he wonders if he will ever succeed to the throne. He asks some pratyekabuddhas what will happen to him and they tell him that he will never be a king in Benaras, but that he should go to distant Takkasila and there he will be king. They warn him that along the way he will meet with yakkinīs, demonesses, who use enticements of each of the five senses to seduce travelers. The Bodhisattva has five companions with him and he warns them of the demonesses and urges them to take heed. The yakkinīs first take aim at the person who is easily attracted to objects of sight. They fashion villages and lie in wait. The one of the five who is addicted to seeing beautiful things tells the Bodhisattva that his feet hurt and he needs to rest in a house there. The Bodhisattva and the other four continue on their way and the yakkhinīs eat the poor fellow. Next the yakkhinīs create another house, this one filled with musical instruments. The one who loves sounds stops there and is also eaten. Then the yakkhinīs fashion a market stall filled with rare incense. The one who loves smells stops there and is eaten. They then make a stall filled with pots of delicious foods. This ensnares the companion who is addicted to the pleasures of taste. The last of the five, given over to the delights of touch, is entrapped by soft couches. The story gives few details of the enticin g objects of the senses that the yakkhinīs create and there are remarkably few mentions of color. When the pratyekabuddhas warn the Bodhisattva before he sets out, they tell him that the yakkhinīs will create villages and houses, with luxuriant couches over which hang canopies that are studded with gold stars; around the couches, they create curtains of many colors. This is the most elaborate description of all the yakkhinī creations and it is remarkably brief. The next mention of any color comes after the yakkhinīs have eaten all five of his companions and the Bodhisattva continues to Takkasila alone. One yakkhinī turns herself into a beautiful woman of golden complexion and pursues him. He tells the king she is a demoness, but the king is smitten and marries her. She eats him and everyone else in the palace. The townspeople agree that the Bodhisattva should be king and they paint the palace green and adorn it with garlands, getting it ready for his coronation. The only colors mentioned in the story are gold, of the stars in the bed canopy and the complexion of the demoness, and the green paint of the palace. By contrast, paintings of this story are exuberant in their colors and details. The 19 th century temple at Mulkirigala, Sri Lanka, is famous for its paintings of this story. Figure 5 illustrates the 45 https://www.oshwalorg.uk/14-auspicious-dreams-swapna-of-trishala-mata/. Figure 4. Devananda’s dreams. Artist:Master of the Jaunpur Kalpasutra (Indian). Date: ca. 1465 Culture: India, (Gujarat, Jaunpur). Medium: Opaque watercolor on paper. Dimensions: Overall: 4 5 / 8 × 11 1 / 2 in. (11.8 × 29.2 cm). Classification: Paintings. Credit Line:Purchase, Cynthia Hazen Polsky Gift, 1992. Accession Number: 1992.359. Metropolitan Museum Turning to Buddhism, sometimes a story is remarkably sparse in visual details in the written version and yet paintings of it abound in color and detail. This is the case, for example, with the Telapattajataka . In this story, the Bodhisattva is one of many children born to the king of Benaras With all those siblings, he wonders if he will ever succeed to the throne. He asks some pratyekabuddhas what will happen to him and they tell him that he will never be a king in Benaras, but that he should go to distant Takkasila and there he will be king. They warn him that along the way he will meet with yakkinis, demonesses, who use enticements of each of the five senses to seduce travelers The Bodhisattva has five companions with him and he warns them of the demonesses and urges them to take heed. The yakkinis first take aim at the person who is easily attracted to objects of sight. They fashion villages and lie in wait. The one of the five who is addicted to seeing beautiful things tells the Bodhisattva that his feet hurt and he needs to rest in a house there. The Bodhisattva and the other four continue on their way and the yakkhinis eat the poor fellow. Next the yakkhinis create another house, this one filled with musical instruments. The one who loves sounds stops there and is also eaten. Then the yakkhinis fashion a market stall filled with rare incense. The one who loves smells stops there and is eaten. They then make a stall filled with pots of delicious foods. This ensnares the companion who is addicted to the pleasures of taste. The last of the five, given over to the delights of touch, is entrapped by soft couches The story gives few details of the enticing objects of the senses that the yakkhinis create and there are remarkably few mentions of color. When the pratyekabuddhas warn the Bodhisattva before he sets out, they tell him that the yakkhinis will create villages and houses, with luxuriant couches over which hang canopies that are studded with gold stars; around the couches, they create curtains of many colors. This is the most elaborate description of all the yakkhini creations and it is remarkably brief. The next mention of any color comes after the yakkhinis have eaten all five of his companions and the Bodhisattva continues to Takkasila alone. One yakkhini turns herself into a beautiful woman of golden complexion and pursues him. He tells the king she is a demoness, but the king is smitten and 44 ACCESSION NUMBER 1994.11.23 45 https: // www.oshwalorg.uk / 14-auspicious-dreams-swapna-of-trishala-mata / .

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Sand, Dharma, Thai, Send, Brutal, Left, Pretty, Crown, Ring, Tai, Lame, Lively, Attack, Wave, Toys, Walk, Lit, Fell, Freedom, Deaf, Bark, Dries, Hard, Reason, Shoot, Halo, Self, Shake, Sword]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 15 of 20 marries her. She eats him and everyone else in the palace. The townspeople agree that the Bodhisattva should be king and they paint the palace green and adorn it with garlands, getting it ready for his coronation. The only colors mentioned in the story are gold, of the stars in the bed canopy and the complexion of the demoness, and the green paint of the palace By contrast, paintings of this story are exuberant in their colors and details. The 19 th century temple at Mulkirigala, Sri Lanka, is famous for its paintings of this story. Figure 5 illustrates the temptation posed by the sense of taste. The painter glories in color-each fruit is brightly colored, red, orange, green, and the background is a vibrant red, against which green ring-neck parrots in the trees feast on hanging orange fruits 46 It is clear that the painter, although left very much on his own by the Pali text at least, did not su ff er for the lack. It is hard to imagine more enticing scenes than those painted here. If the story left us wondering what was so special about the yakkhini creations, seeing the paintings we are not surprised that the Bodhisattva’s companions fell for the yakkhini tricks Religions 2020 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20 temptation posed by the sense of taste. The painter glories in color-each fruit is brightly colored, red, orange, green, and the background is a vibrant red, against which green ring-neck parrots in the trees feast on hanging orange fruits 46 It is clear that the painter, although left very much on his own by the Pali text at least, did not suffer for the lack. It is hard to imagine more enticing scenes than those painted here. If the story left us wondering what was so special about the yakkhinī creations, seeing the paintings we are not surprised that the Bodhisattva’s companions fell for the yakkhinī tricks Figure 5. The temptation of taste from the Telapatta Jātaka, Mulkirgala, Sri Lanka, Courtesy Osmund Bopearachchi The Telapattajātaka , although providing the raw material for centuries of visual depictions, was surprisingly poor in visual details, particularly in mentions of color. Perhaps that was one reason why it had such a long life as the subject of painting and sculpture; the artist was given a satisfying plot but left with the freedom to dramatize it in art. It was not alone in its sparse attention to color. The Temiyajātaka 538 is the story of a prince who remembers his past births as a king and then in hell for the violence he committed as king. He does not want to be a king again and have to suffer such retribution, for violence is endemic to kinship, as he realizes when he sees his father order the brutal punishment of some thieves. He pretends to be deaf, lame and mute. His parents try to make him walk and talk; they starve him, tempt him with gold toys; they have musicians play night and day and pretty women try to seduce him; an elephant is trained to pretend to attack him and defanged snakes are set upon him to frighten him; they send someone to wave a sword and threaten to cut off his head; they even have his room lit on fire. Nothing can shake him from his steadfast meditation and his resolve to become a monk. His father eventually orders him to be killed, but he shows his true self to his would-be-executioner and renounces the world. He teaches his parents dharma and they too renounce. The occasions for lively description abound in this story, but as in the Telapatta jātaka details are few and references to colors are even fewer. The only colors mentioned are gold (the Bodhisattva’s body, the toys; his father’s sandals), crystal (the sword with which he is threatened, the sand of his hermitage), white ( his father’s umbrella) , and red (his bark garment). Green figures in a simile; the person who longs for the future and laments the past dries up, like a green shoot that has been cut down” (verse 91). Figure 6, a 20 th century Thai scroll painting now in the Walters Museum, by contrast, is alive with colors, but not the colors that the written version notes The Bodhisattva is white, not gold, while the chariot he flips over to show his strength is gold as are the saddles of the horses and his crown and halo. The body of the executioner is red, the expected color 46 Because earlier painting is so poorly preserved and colors change with age, I have selected recent examples here. For more images, see https://ranwella.wordpresscom/14-telapatta-jataka/. Figure 5. The temptation of taste from the Telapatta Jataka, Mulkirgala, Sri Lanka, Courtesy Osmund Bopearachchi The Telapattajataka , although providing the raw material for centuries of visual depictions, was surprisingly poor in visual details, particularly in mentions of color. Perhaps that was one reason why it had such a long life as the subject of painting and sculpture; the artist was given a satisfying plot but left with the freedom to dramatize it in art. It was not alone in its sparse attention to color. The Temiyajataka 538 is the story of a prince who remembers his past births as a king and then in hell for the violence he committed as king. He does not want to be a king again and have to su ff er such retribution, for violence is endemic to kinship, as he realizes when he sees his father order the brutal punishment of some thieves. He pretends to be deaf, lame and mute. His parents try to make him walk and talk; they starve him, tempt him with gold toys; they have musicians play night and day and pretty women try to seduce him; an elephant is trained to pretend to attack him and defanged snakes are set upon him to frighten him; they send someone to wave a sword and threaten to cut o ff his head; they even have his room lit on fire. Nothing can shake him from his steadfast meditation and his resolve to become a monk. His father eventually orders him to be killed, but he shows his 46 Because earlier painting is so poorly preserved and colors change with age, I have selected recent examples here. For more images, see https: // ranwella.wordpresscom / 14-telapatta-jataka / .

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Husband, Add, Plant, Sky, Maddi, Kingdom, Frame, Central, Feel, Live, Shorter, Mid]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 16 of 20 true self to his would-be-executioner and renounces the world. He teaches his parents dharma and they too renounce. The occasions for lively description abound in this story, but as in the Telapatta jataka details are few and references to colors are even fewer. The only colors mentioned are gold (the Bodhisattva’s body, the toys; his father’s sandals), crystal (the sword with which he is threatened, the sand of his hermitage), white (his father’s umbrella), and red (his bark garment). Green figures in a simile; the person who longs for the future and laments the past dries up, like a green shoot that has been cut down” (verse 91). Figure 6 , a 20 th century Thai scroll painting now in the Walters Museum, by contrast, is alive with colors, but not the colors that the written version notes. The Bodhisattva is white, not gold, while the chariot he flips over to show his strength is gold as are the saddles of the horses and his crown and halo. The body of the executioner is red, the expected color of demons, but he and the Bodhisattva both wear the same patterned blue cloth. The sky is tinted red and the ground is blue, colors again picked up by the trees that frame the scene. Color is central to the e ff ect of the painting; like the executioner and the horses, we too focus our attention on the large gold chariot and the white and gold Bodhisattva Religions 2020 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 20 of demons, but he and the Bodhisattva both wear the same patterned blue cloth. The sky is tinted red and the ground is blue, colors again picked up by the trees that frame the scene. Color is central to the effect of the painting; like the executioner and the horses, we too focus our attention on the large gold chariot and the white and gold Bodhisattva. Figure 6. Temiya Jātaka, Thai, mid 20 th century, Walters Museum mid 20 th century (Rattanakosin) . MEDIUM; pigments on wood (Painting & Drawing). ACCESSION NUMBER: 2010.12.27. MEASUREMENTSH: 15 3/4 × W: 24 in. (40 × 61 cm) I would add that even where rich visual detail is provided in a text, for example in the Vessantarajātaka, paintings and sculptures could sometimes ignore entirely the dense descriptions or use different colors from those specified in the text. The Vessantarajātaka has several long descriptions of the hermitage where the Bodhisattva and his family will live and of the forest that the wicked Jūjaka must traverse to find them. The forest is given both a shorter and a longer description. These sections are rich in color references, although sometimes a direct color word is not used and something from nature, the color of which was well known, is named instead. This can be a plant, a flower, an insect or bird. When Maddī insists on following her husband Vessantara into exile, she describes their destination in the Himalayas in vivid language, “as if she had seen it before” 47 In the hermitage, Vessantara will feel no sorrow for the kingdom he has left behind, she tells him, when he sees the blue-necked peacocks with their many colored feathers dancing (1738 – 1739); when he beholds the green earth studded with indagopa beetles (1740 – 1741); when he beholds the bimba trees and the loddapadhdaka in bloom (1742). Indagopa beetles are well-known for their red color as is the bimba flower; lodda flowers are yellow. As the prince departs, his mother laments, recalling the pendants of his soldiers’ flags and his soldiers themselves, all of them like kaṇikāra flowers in full bloom, that is, yellow in color. Elsewhere, the forest is described as like a cloud, meaning dark (1909), while some trees are frog-colored. The water of a pond is the color of a veluriya gem (2031), and birds are green, red and white (2075). There are lists of different trees, and one suspects that to a contemporary audience it would not have been just the sounds of the names that were captivating; each tree would have brought to mind a color. One might compare the list with similar lists in the Mahābhārata , for example, that name the trees of the forest. I have added their colors. There are 47 Diṭṭhapuvvaṃ viya, comment just before verse 1721. Figure 6. Temiya Jataka, Thai, mid 20 th century, Walters Museum mid 20 th century (Rattanakosin) MEDIUM; pigments on wood (Painting & Drawing) ACCESSION NUMBER: 2010.12.27 MEASUREMENTSH: 15 3 / 4 × W: 24 in. (40 × 61 cm) I would add that even where rich visual detail is provided in a text, for example in the Vessantarajataka, paintings and sculptures could sometimes ignore entirely the dense descriptions or use di ff erent colors from those specified in the text. The Vessantarajataka has several long descriptions of the hermitage where the Bodhisattva and his family will live and of the forest that the wicked J ujaka must traverse to find them. The forest is given both a shorter and a longer description. These sections are rich in color references, although sometimes a direct color word is not used and something from nature, the color of which was well known, is named instead. This can be a plant, a flower, an insect or bird. When Maddi insists on following her husband Vessantara into exile, she describes their destination in the Himalayas in vivid language, “as if she had seen it before” 47 In the hermitage, Vessantara will feel no sorrow for the kingdom he has left behind, she tells him, when he sees the 47 Ditthapuvvam. viya, comment just before verse 1721.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Thailand, Servant, Naga, Karanja, Faithful, Sanchi, Half, Pum]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 17 of 20 blue-necked peacocks with their many colored feathers dancing (1738–1739); when he beholds the green earth studded with indagopa beetles (1740–1741); when he beholds the bimba trees and the loddapadhdaka in bloom (1742). Indagopa beetles are well-known for their red color as is the bimba flower; lodda flowers are yellow. As the prince departs, his mother laments, recalling the pendants of his soldiers’ flags and his soldiers themselves, all of them like kanikara flowers in full bloom, that is, yellow in color. Elsewhere, the forest is described as like a cloud, meaning dark (1909), while some trees are frog-colored. The water of a pond is the color of a veluriya gem (2031), and birds are green, red and white (2075). There are lists of di ff erent trees, and one suspects that to a contemporary audience it would not have been just the sounds of the names that were captivating; each tree would have brought to mind a color. One might compare the list with similar lists in the Mahabharata , for example, that name the trees of the forest. I have added their colors. There are campaka (yellow), bakula (white), pumnaga (white with yellow and pink), ketaki (yellow), paribhadra (red) and karañja (white with purple) 48 Indeed, such forests are alive with color The enthusiasm of the written text for this vast forest world is not always shared by the visual artist. The well-known relief of the jataka at Sanchi depicts the hermitage, but ignores entirely the forest. Even a cursory look at paintings suggests that even when the forest was depicted the painter or perhaps a given tradition of painting created its own palette. Figure 7 , a scroll from Thailand, now in the Walters Museum, has a section that shows the wicked J ujaka as he makes his way through the forest to find the Bodhisattva and get his children to be his servants. The painting is faithful to the textual description of the forest with trees and birds and a lotus pond, but its muted colors are not the colors the text imagines. For all the values assigned to colors in a wide range of texts and the prominence of color in written texts, it seems that for these visual artists color had a life of its own Religions 2020 , 11 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 20 campaka (yellow), bakula (white), pumnāga (white with yellow and pink), ketakī (yellow), paribhadra (red) and karañja (white with purple) 48 Indeed, such forests are alive with color. The enthusiasm of the written text for this vast forest world is not always shared by the visual artist. The well-known relief of the jātaka at Sanchi depicts the hermitage, but ignores entirely the forest. Even a cursory look at paintings suggests that even when the forest was depicted the painter or perhaps a given tradition of painting created its own palette. Figure 7, a scroll from Thailand, now in the Walters Museum, has a section that shows the wicked Jūjaka as he makes his way through the forest to find the Bodhisattva and get his children to be his servants. The painting is faithful to the textual description of the forest with trees and birds and a lotus pond, but its muted colors are not the colors the text imagines. For all the values assigned to colors in a wide range of texts and the prominence of color in written texts, it seems that for these visual artists color had a life of its own. Figure 7. Vessantara Jātaka scroll, Walters Museum. Thai (Artist). PERIOD: 1 st half 20 th century (Bangkok). MEDIUM: pigments on cloth (Painting & Drawing). ACCESSION NUMBER: 35.288. MEASUREMENTS: H: 96 1/16 × L: 36 in. (244 × 91.5 cm) Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest : The author declares no conflict of interest. List of Images 1. Lokesvara Khasarpana form of Avalokitesvara late 11 th century India, Nalanda, Pala Period (c.750 – c.1200) Steatite Overall: 7.7 cm (3 1/16 in.) The Severance and Greta Millikin Purchase Fund 1991.155 Cleveland Museum of Art 2 Avalokitesvara from an Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Period: Pala period Date: early 12 th century Culture: Bengal, eastern India or Bangladesh Dimensions: Page: 2 3/4 × 16 7/16 in. (7 × 41.8 cm) Image: 2 1/2 × 1 15/16 in. (6.4 × 4.9 cm) 48 04,005.002 d*0134_001 campakān bakulāṃś caiva puṃnāgān ketakīs tathā . 04,005.002 d*0134_002 pāribhadrān karañjāṃś ca anyāṃś ca vividhān drumān . Figure 7. Vessantara Jataka scroll, Walters Museum. Thai (Artist). PERIOD: 1 st half 20 th century (Bangkok). MEDIUM: pigments on cloth (Painting & Drawing). ACCESSION NUMBER: 35.288 MEASUREMENTS: H: 96 1 / 16 × L: 36 in. (244 × 91.5 cm) Funding: This research received no external funding Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest List of Images 1. Lokesvara Khasarpana form of Avalokitesvara late 11 th century 48 04,005.002 d*0134_001 campakan bakulam . s caiva pum . nagan ketakis tatha. 04,005.002 d*0134_002 paribhadran karañjam . s ca anyam . s ca vividhan druman.

[Find the meaning and references behind the names: Press, Uni, Htm, York, Kavi, Mumbai, Gos, Iii, Agama, Patrick, Shana, Sana, Ramakrishna]

Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 18 of 20 India, Nalanda, Pala Period (c.750–c.1200) Steatite Overall: 7.7 cm (3 1 / 16 in.) The Severance and Greta Millikin Purchase Fund 1991.155 Cleveland Museum of Art 2. Avalokitesvara from an Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Period: Pala period Date: early 12 th century Culture: Bengal, eastern India or Bangladesh Dimensions: Page: 2 3 / 4 × 16 7 / 16 in. (7 × 41.8 cm) Image: 2 1 / 2 × 1 15 / 16 in. (6.4 × 4.9 cm) Credit Line:Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 2001 Accession Number:2001.445 l Metropolitan Museum 3. Telapatta Jataka from Mulkirigala, Sri Lanka, courtesy Osmund Bopearachchi. 4. Devananda’s dreams Artist:Master of the Jaunpur Kalpasutra (Indian) Date: ca. 1465 Culture: India, (Gujarat, Jaunpur) Medium: Opaque watercolor on paper Dimensions: Overall: 4 5 / 8 × 11 1 / 2 in. (11.8 × 29.2 cm) Classification: Paintings Credit Line: Purchase, Cynthia Hazen Polsky Gift, 1992 Accession Number: 1992.359 5. The temptation of taste from the Telapatta Jataka, Mulkirgala, Sri Lanka, Courtesy Osmund Bopearachchi 6. Temiya Jataka, Thai, mid 20 th century, Walters Museum mid 20 th century (Rattanakosin) MEDIUM pigments on wood (Painting & Drawing) ACCESSION NUMBER 2010.12.27 MEASUREMENTS H: 15 3 / 4 × W: 24 in. (40 × 61 cm) 7. Vessantara Jataka scroll, Walters Museum Thai (Artist) PERIOD 1 st half 20 th century (Bangkok) MEDIUM pigments on cloth (Painting & Drawing) ACCESSION NUMBER 35.288 MEASUREMENTS H: 96 1 / 16 × L: 36 in. (244 × 91.5 cm) References and Notes Primary Sources Abhinavabharati , ed. M. Ramakrishna Kavi, vol. III, Baroda: Oriental Institute, GOS CXXIV, 1954 Apannaka jataka https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn / . Aupapatika S utra , ed. Diparatnas¯agara, ¯ Agama Suttani, vol. 8, Ahmedabad: ¯ Agama ´Sruta Praka´sana, 2000 Bhaisajyaguruvaiduryaprabharaja sutra GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 4_rellit / buddh / bsu 012_u.htm . Brhatstotraratnakara , ed. Krsnaraj ´Srikrsnadas, Mumbai: Venkatesvara Press, 1916 Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa text with translation Patrick Olivelle, New York: New York University Press 2008 and http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 5_poetry / 2_kavya / asvbc_1 u.htm .

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Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 19 of 20 Chandogya Upanisad, with commentary of ´Samkara,GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 1_veda / 4_upa / chupsb_u.htm , Translation Olivelle, Patrick. 1996 Upanisads , Oxford: Oxford University Press. ´Samkara commentary GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 1_veda / 4_upa / chupsb_u.htm . Dasakumaracaritam ed. Kasinatha Pandura ˙nga Parab, Mumbai: Nirnaya Sagara Press, 1890 Divyavadana GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 4_rellit / buddh / divyav_u.htm . Gitagovinda of Jayadeva GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 5_poetry / 2_kavya / jaygit 1 u.htm . Jatakatthakatha https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn / . Kalpas utram, with commentary Kalpalata of Samayasundaragani. ´Sri Jinadattasr uripracinapustakoddharaphanda, grantha ˙nka 42, Mumbai: Nirnayasagara Press, 1939 Kumarasambhava of Kalidasa with commentary of Mallinatha, ed. ´Srivinasacandramukhopadhyaya, Calcutta: Sarasvati Press, ND Lalitavistara GRETIL, http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 4_rellit / buddh / bsu 022_u.htm . Mahabharata GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 2_epic / mbh / mbh02_u.htm . In her recent book, Buddhist Visual Cultures, Rhetoric, and Narrative in Late Burmese Wall Paintings, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2018, pp. 180–88, Alexandra Green Mahaparinibbana sutta https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn / . Mahavagga, Bhesajjavatthu ; Cammakkhanda https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn . M ugapakkhajatakavannana 538, https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn / . M ulasarvastivada vinaya Samghabhedavastu GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 4_rellit / buddh / vinv 171 u.htm . M ulasarvastivada vinaya, Civaravastu, from the edition of NDutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, vol. 3 Part 2 (Sringar 1942) p 95, GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 4_rellit / buddh / vinv 07_u.htm . Natyasastra of Bharata http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 5_poetry / 1_natya / bharnatu.htm . Nigrodhamigajataka 12, https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn / . Nyaya S utra of Vatsyayana , GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 6_sastra / 3_phil / nyaya / nysvbh 1 u.htm . Ramayana GRETIL. Available online: http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 2_epic / ramayana / ram06_ u.htm (accessed on 8 January 2019) ´Srimantyuttaradhyayanani , part III, Devacandra Lalabhai Series 41, Ahmedabad, 1917 ´Sr.˙ngaramañjarikatha of King Bhoja, ed. K.M. Munshi, Bombay:Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1959 Sukhavativy uha s utra GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 4_rellit / buddh / bsu 033_u.htm . S utrakrta˙nga , ed. Diparatnasagara, ¯ Agamasuttani, vol. 2, Ahmedabad: ¯ Agama ´Sruta Prakasan, 2000 ´Svetasvatara Upanisad , 4.5, GRETL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 1_veda / 4_upa / svetu_pu.htm / . Tattvakaumudi ed. MM Patkar, Poona: Oriental Book Agency, 1965 Tattvakaumudi of Vacaspati Misra. ed. MM Patkar. Poona: Oriental Book Agency, 1965 Telapattajataka , 96, https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn / . Translation Jacobi, Hermann Sacred Books of the East, 45, 1895. online http: // www.sacred-textscom / jai / sbe 45 / sbe 4536.htm . Upadesaratnakara of Munisundaras uri, Bombay: Devachan Lalbhai Pustakoddhar, 1914 Uttaradhyayana s utra GRETIL http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 2_prakrt / uttaraju.htm . Vikram . takaurava of Hastimalla. Pandita Manoharlalasastri, Manikacandra Digambarajainagranthamala, trtiya puspa. Bombay, 1915 Vimalakirtinirdesa s utra http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_sanskr / 4_rellit / buddh / bsu 012_u.htm . Vimanarcanakalpa eds. ´Sri Raghunathacakravarti Bhattac¯arya and Setu Madhavacarya. Madras: ´Sri Venkatesvara Mudranalaya, 1926 Vimanarcanakalpa Tirupati: Tirumala-Tirupati Devasthanam, 1923 Vinaya C ulavagga. senasanakkhandaka, setavannadianujananam. Para. 298–99. Available online: https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn / (accessed on 25 December 2018) Visnudharmottarapurana Delhi Nag Publishers 1985. Translation Shah, Priyabala, Shri Vishnudharmottara ( A Text on Ancient Indian Arts ). Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co, 1990 Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa https: // www.tipitaka.org / romn / .

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Religions 2020 , 11 , 9 20 of 20 Secondary Sources Brinkmann, Vinzenz, Ren é e Dreyfus, and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, eds. 2017 Gods in Color Polychromy in the Ancient World . San Francisco: Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco, Legion of Honor Das, S. N. 1965 Odiyar Sahityar Itihas . Cuttack: Grantha Mandir Gage, John. 2005 Colour and Culture: Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction . London: Thames and Hudson Grano ff , Phyllis. 2004. Reflections on Reflections: Shadow and Darkness in Jain Philosophical Texts. In Three Montains and Seven Rivers: Prof. Musashi Tachikawa’s Felicitation Volume . Edited by Shoun Hino and Toshihiro Wada. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 331–55 Grano ff , Phyllis. 2010. Cosmographs and Cosmic Jinas. In From Turfan to Ajanta. Festschrift for Dieter Schlinglo ff on the Occasion of His Eightieth Birthday . Edited by Eli Franco and Monika Zin. Lumbini: Lumbini International Research Institute, vol. 1, pp. 335–44 Green, Alexandra. 2018 Buddhist Visual Cultures, Rhetoric, and Narrative in Late Burmese Wall Paintings . Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press Hickey, Helen. 2015. Medical Diagnosis and the Colour Yellow in Early Modern England E-Rea, Revue É lectronique D’ é tudes sur le Monde Anglophone 12: 1–21. [ CrossRef ] Kuhn, Dieter. 2012. Reading the Magnificence of Ancient and Medieval Chinese Silks. In Chinese Silks . Edited by Dieter Kuhn. New Haven: Yale University Press Lefevre, Vincent. 2011 Portraiture in Early India: Between Transience and Eternity . Leiden: E.J. Brill Nardi, Isabella. 2007. The Concepts of Painting and the Figure of the Painter as Described in Selected Sanskrit Sources Oriental Archive 75: 291–303 Schlinglo ff , Dieter. 1955 Buddhistische Stotras aus ostturkistanischen Sanskrittexten . [Sanskrittexte aus den Turfanfunden, 1]. Berlin: GRETIL, pp. 82–116. Available online: http: // gretilsub.uni-goettingende / gretil / 1_ sanskr / 4_rellit / buddh / busto 1_u.htm (accessed on 25 December 2018) Shah, Priyabala. 1990 Shri Vishnudharmottara (A Text on Ancient Indian Arts) . Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co Stoichita, Victor I. 1997 A Short History of the Shadow . London: Reaktion Books Warder, Anthony Kennedy. 2004 Indian Kavya Literature: The Wheel of Time . Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, vol. 6, Pt. 2 Zin, Monika. 2012. Mandhatar, the Universal Monarch, and the Meaning of Representations of the Cakravartin in the Amaravati School, and of the Kings on the Kanaganahalli St upa. In Buddhist Narrative in Asia and Beyond, Volume One . Edited by Peter Skilling and Justin McDaniel. Bangkok: Chulalaongkorn University, pp. 149–67 © 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http: // creativecommonsorg / licenses / by / 4.0 / ).