Association between Selected Dietary Habits and Lipid Profiles of Patients...

[Full title: Association between Selected Dietary Habits and Lipid Profiles of Patients with Cardiovascular Disease]

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Article Association between Selected Dietary Habits and Lipid Profiles of Patients with Cardiovascular Disease Jana Kopˇcekov á 1 , M á ria Holoviˇcov á 1 , Martina Gažarov á 1 , Jana Mr á zov á 1 , Marta Hab á nov á 1 , Lucia Meˇciarov á 1 and Monika Bronkowska 2, * 1 Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia; jana.kopcekova@uniag.sk (J.K.); mariaholovicova 23@gmail.com (M.H.); martina.gazarova@uniag.sk (M.G.); jana.mrazova@uniag.sk (J.M.); marta.habanova@uniag.sk (M.H.); lucia.meciarova@leanenterprise.sk (L.M.) 2 Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Science, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 51-630 Wroclaw, Poland * Correspondence: monika.bronkowska@upwr.edu.pl; Tel.: + 48-713-207-758 Received: 13 August 2020; Accepted: 15 October 2020; Published: 19 October 2020 Abstract: This study evaluated the associations between selected dietary habits and lipid profiles in a group of 800 randomly selected patients hospitalized in the Nitra Cardio Center, Slovakia. Patients were aged 20–101 years (only men, the average age was 61.13 ± 10.47 years). The data necessary for the detection of dietary habits were obtained by a questionnaire method in closed-ended format. Data collection was carried out simultaneously with the somatometric and biochemical examinations of the respondents ensured by the Nitra Cardio Center. The following parameters were evaluated: total cholesterol (T-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides, and blood glucose. Statistical comparisons between groups were performed using one-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post hoc test. We detected significant di ff erences ( p < 0.05) in the influence of the number of daily meals on T-C and LDL-C, which were higher in men who consumed 1–2 meals compared with 3–4 or 5–6 meals. In the consumption of meat, eggs, and fish, there was no significant e ff ect on the biochemical parameters of blood ( p > 0.05). We recorded a significant e ff ect ( p < 0.001) on T-C and LDL-C levels between low-fat and whole-fat milk consumption. Except for the impact of fruit consumption on the HDL-C level ( p < 0.001), the di ff erent frequencies of fruit consumption showed non-significant changes for the lipid profile levels. We detected a significant e ff ect ( p = 0.017) of the consumption of vegetables 1–2 times / week on LDL-C in favor of daily consumption. Our results support that monitoring the lipid profile is an important determinant in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. The conducted research emphasizes the importance of diet dependence on the improvement of the quality of treatment and nutrition of people with this type of disease Keywords: cardiovascular disease; lipid profile; food frequency; dietary habits 1. Introduction Currently, a substantial increase in cardiovascular disease (CVD) is noticeable all over the world; it is deemed to be the main cause of death in both developed and developing countries [ 1 , 2 ]. The proportion of deaths in Europe from CVD amongst men is 43% and 55% amongst women. It is estimated that 30% of people under the age of 65 on this continent die of CVD [ 3 ]. The main cause of CVD (which is the reason for high mortality in the population) is atherosclerosis. The causes and risk factors of atherosclerosis are still not fully known. In spite of this, some risk determinants have been identified that may increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis. Mainly, they include: high-serum Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605; doi:10.3390 / ijerph 17207605 www.mdpi.com / journal / ijerph

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 2 of 12 total cholesterol (T-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), as well as hypertension, smoking, diabetes, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle [ 4 ]. Numerous clinical and epidemiological experimental studies have shown that nutrition plays an important role in the prevention and secondary prevention of atherosclerosis [ 4 ]. It is assumed that as much as 80% of cardiovascular incidents could probably be avoided by implementing a proper lifestyle (weight control, avoiding alcohol and smoking, exercising, and balanced nutrition). It is also necessary to pay attention to adequate clinical care and biological risk factors [ 3 ]. The World Health Organization emphasizes that improper nutrition, a sedentary lifestyle, alcohol abuse, and smoking are the main modifiable risk factors for chronic diseases such as CVD, cancer, respiratory disorders, and metabolic diseases [ 5 ]. The first evidence of the association between diet / physical activity and well-being was found in the 1960 s following the first results of a study named the “Seven Countries’ Study” [ 6 ]. The first results from this study were surprising because they distinctly showed that the countries of the Mediterranean basin (Italy and Greece) had the lowest incidence of death from CVD and cancer compared to all other countries [ 6 ]. In the last two decades, considerable knowledge has been gained from intervention studies about food and nutrients that favorably or adversely a ff ect the cardiovascular system [ 7 , 8 ]. While foods from animal sources contain important nutrients that may not be readily available from plant sources, high consumption of red meat is associated with a greater risk of morbidity and mortality from CVD. Such diets may contain high levels of total and saturated fats in addition to cholesterol. Numerous studies have demonstrated the benefits of diets high in fruit, vegetables, whole grains, and fish, as well as low in red meat, high-fat dairy products, and transand saturated fats On the other hand, most recent meta-analyses of randomized trials and observational studies found no beneficial e ff ects of reducing saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake on CVD and total mortality, and instead found protective e ff ects against strokes [ 9 ]. High concentrations of T-C, LDL cholesterol, and triacylglycerols indicate that the individual is at risk for the onset of CVD [ 10 ]. Increased concentration of LDL cholesterol in the blood serum is a recognized risk factor for the development of heart disease. However, the relationship between the dietary cholesterol content and the serum LDL-C concentration is still unknown [ 11 ]. This study aimed to evaluate the associations between selected dietary habits and lipid profiles in a group of randomly selected patients hospitalized in the Nitra Cardio Center, Slovakia The research was approved by the Ethics Committee of Kardiocentrum Nitra and the Ethics Committee of the Specialized Hospital, St. Zoerardus Zobor, protocol number 10.6.2014 2. Materials and Methods We evaluated the relationship between selected dietary habits and lipid profiles in a group of 800 randomly selected men hospitalized in the Nitra Cardio Center, Slovakia. The study was approved by the Nitra Cardio Center, and all participants signed the written consent before participating in the study. Patients were aged 20–101 years (the average age was 61.13 ± 10.47 years). Patients were selected using the method of random selection. Respondents included in the study had either overcome myocardial infarction or were diagnosed with angina pectoris and hospitalized after undergoing catheterization. Data were collected during the years 2015–2018 The data necessary for the detection of dietary habits were obtained by a questionnaire method in closed-ended format The questionnaire was applied individually by a single interviewer The questionnaire contained two parts The first part included questions concerning the socio-demographic situation of the subjects, physical activity, use of tobacco, and medical history The second part of the questionnaire concerned the analysis of selected dietary habits, including the number of the consumed meals, their regularity, snacking between meals, types of snacks consumed, and the eating frequency of selected groups of food products. The questionnaire was anonymous; its completion was voluntary, with only one response to be circled for each question. The questionnaire

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 3 of 12 was compiled by the Department of Human Nutrition (Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra) and approved by the Nitra Cardio Center Data collection was carried out simultaneously with the somatometric and biochemical examinations of the respondents ensured by the Nitra Cardio Center. The following parameters, considered to be major risk factors for CVD, were evaluated: T-C, LDL-C, HDL-C, triglycerides (TG), and blood glucose. Venous blood was collected in the morning after 8 h of fasting in a standard manner, using 2.5 mL EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) solution in a 7.5 mL serum gel tube. Following the separation of blood serum, the lipid profile was measured using the Automatic Biochemical Analyzer BioMajesty ® JCA-BM 6010 / C (DiaSys Diagnostic System GmbH, Holzheim, Germany) The anthropometric parameters of body weight (kg) and height (cm) were measured on outpatient electronic medical scales (Tanita WB-3000, Tanita Co., Tokyo, Japan). The body mass index (BMI) was calculated by dividing the body weight in kilograms by the square of the height in meters The data were checked for normality. Assumptions for the normal distribution of data were tested using the Shapiro–Wilk test Parametric statistics were used to evaluate di ff erences in parameters that were characterized by a normal distribution (Food Frequency Questionnaire - FFQ) Statistical comparisons between groups were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post hoc test. For parameters inconsistent with the normal distribution, they were expressed as the median (Me) and the lower and upper quartiles (Q 1, Q 3). Here, nonparametric statistics and Spearman’s rank order correlations were used to compare the di ff erences. Two-sample non-parametric comparisons were performed using the Mann–Whitney U test. Significance was assumed when p < 0.05. Statistica Cz 10 (TIBCO Software, Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA) and MS Excel 2007 (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA) were used 3. Results From the obtained individual values, we calculated the basic statistical characteristics These characteristics of the study participants are shown in Table 1 . The demographic characteristics of study participants are shown in Table 2 . Table 1. Characteristics of study participants ( n = 800) Characteristic Me Q 1 Q 3 Age (years) 61.00 56.00 68.00 BMI (kg / m 2 ) 29.05 26.73 31.78 TC (mmol / L) 4.65 3.80 5.55 LDL-C (mmol / L) 2.85 2.19 3.52 HDL-C (mmol / L) 1.11 0.92 4.01 TG (mmol / L) 1.51 1.07 2.21 Glucose (mmol / L) 5.94 5.30 7.28 Abbreviations: Me: median; Q 1: lower quartile; Q 3: upper quartile; BMI: body mass index; T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; TG: triglycerides In the prevention of obesity and lipid metabolism disorders, attention is paid to the regular consumption of meals, with appropriate time intervals between them. This statement is supported by the fact that people who consume low-quantity food doses per day had increased levels of T-C and a higher prevalence of obesity and CVD [ 12 ], which was also confirmed by our results. It turned out that most of the respondents (69.25%) consumed 3–4 meals a day (Table 3 ). Only 25.3% of participants reported 5–6 meals a day. We detected significant di ff erences ( p < 0.05) between the influence of the number of daily meals on T-C and LDL-C, which were higher in men who consumed 1–2 meals compared with 3–4 or 5–6 meals (Table 3 ). Previous studies have shown that a higher daily eating frequency is associated with an increased intake of energy, which comes mainly from carbohydrates and not from fats or proteins. Such studies also found a positive relationship between a higher daily

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 4 of 12 eating frequency and the consumption of nutrients such as dietary fiber, vitamin C, folic acid, calcium, magnesium, and iron [ 13 ]. Table 2. Demographic characteristics of study participants ( n = 800) Characteristics n % Characteristics n % Social status Family status employed 273 34.2 married 582 72.7 unemployed 127 15.7 divorced 111 13.9 retired 400 50.1 widowed 107 13.4 Age categories (years) Education < 40 30 3.7 basic 98 12.2 40–49 65 8.1 apprenticeship 234 29.4 50–59 229 28.6 secondary 302 37.7 60–69 315 39.4 higher 166 20.7 70–79 147 18.4 Physical activity ≥ 80 14 1.8 15–30 min / day 285 35.6 BMI (kg / m 2 ) 30–60 min / day 161 20.1 < 18.5 3 0.3 > 60 min / day 354 44.3 18.5–25 93 11.6 Smoker 25–30 402 50.2 Yes 251 31.4 ≥ 30 302 37.9 No 549 68.6 Table 3. E ff ect of the number of daily meals on lipid profile (mmol / L) Number of Daily Meals n (%) T-C (Average ± SD) LDL-C (Average ± SD) HDL-C (Average ± SD) TG (Average ± SD) 1–2 76 (9.5) 4.92 ± 1.13 3.14 ± 0.84 1.19 ± 0.42 1.59 ± 0.80 3–4 522 (65.2) 4.73 ± 1.20 2.98 ± 1.02 1.16 ± 0.40 1.77 ± 1.03 5–6 202 (25.3) 4.34 ± 1.12 2.65 ± 0.90 1.11 ± 0.35 1.64 ± 0.94 p -value 0.031 a ; 0.033 b 0.032 a ; 0.031 b > 0.05 > 0.05 Abbreviations: T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides a Significant di ff erence between 1–2 and 5–6 daily meals b Significant di ff erence between 3–4 and 5–6 daily meals Although consumption of red meat is valuable as a source of protein, iron, vitamin B 12 , and other B vitamins in the human diet [ 14 ], its excessive consumption, as seen in many Western nations, may be associated with obesity, CVD, some types of oncological diseases, diabetes, and other non-communicable diseases [ 15 – 17 ]. The link between meat consumption and the incidence of chronic diseases and mortality has been evaluated in hundreds of observational epidemiological studies over the last few decades. Despite these substantial data, it is not yet clear whether the increased intake of certain groups of meat (e.g., total, unprocessed, or processed red meat) or certain species (e.g., beef or pork) contribute independently to the risk of the disease [ 18 ]. We found that pork is the most popular; 72.7% of respondents reported consuming it 1–2 times / week (Table 4 ). Escriba-Perez et al. [ 19 ] monitored the consumption of meat in 800 respondents aged 25–75 years. The most common was chicken, which was consumed by up to 90.87% of respondents at least once a week. The second most frequently consumed was beef (63.62%), and third was pork (52.62%). Escriba-Perez et al. [ 19 ] also stated that red meat consumption frequency also di ff ered between the sexes. Beef was consumed more frequently by males, while females consumed more chicken than red meat. The results of the e ff ect of the frequency of red meat consumption on the lipid profiles of participants in the current study are shown in Table 4 . The highest T-C and LDL-C values were seen in men who consumed red meat 3–4 times / week. For the consumption of pork and beef, there was no significant e ff ect on the blood biochemical parameters ( p > 0.05). Only pork consumption had a significant e ff ect on TG ( p = 0.046). Kontogianni et al. [ 20 ] found that a high intake of red meat

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 5 of 12 (more than eight servings / month) was associated with an increased risk of acute coronary syndromes, but low intake (less than four servings / month) showed no association Table 4. E ff ect of the frequency of consumption of red meat on lipid profile (mmol / L) Frequency of Meat Consumption n (%) T-C (Average ± SD) LDL-C (Average ± SD) HDL-C (Average ± SD) TG (Average ± SD) Pork 1–2 times / week 582 (72.7) 4.57 ± 1.11 2.82 ± 0.93 1.19 ± 0.46 1.68 ± 0.82 3–4 times / week 94 (11.7) 4.78 ± 1.07 2.87 ± 0.88 1.14 ± 0.33 2.02 ± 0.98 1–2 times / month 112 (14.0) 4.77 ± 1.33 2.92 ± 0.98 1.17 ± 0.28 1.94 ± 1.08 no consumption 12 (1.6) 4.58 ± 1.09 2.78 ± 0.87 1.18 ± 0.09 1.96 ± 0.37 p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 0.046 a , 0.039 b Beef 1–2 times / week 370 (46.2) 4.62 ± 1.14 2.84 ± 0.91 1.17 ± 0.38 1.68 ± 0.77 3–4 times / week 44 (5.5) 4.52 ± 0.78 2.70 ± 0.38 1.07 ± 0.29 1.99 ± 1.23 1–2 times / month 374 (46.7) 4.51 ± 1.16 2.79 ± 1.01 1.21 ± 0.49 1.77 ± 0.88 no consumption 12 (1.6) 4.53 ± 0.18 3.08 ± 0.78 1.17 ± 0.06 1.87 ± 0.13 p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 Abbreviations: T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides a Significant di ff erence between 1–2 times / week and 3–4 times / week b Significant di ff erence between 1–2 times / week and 1–2 times / month Our results show that most respondents (60.5%) consume 1–5 eggs weekly (Table 5 ). This consumption rate is associated with non-significantly lower T-C and LDL-C ( p > 0.05) The significant e ff ect ( p < 0.001) was observed on the TG levels, which were highest at the consumption of > 10 eggs per week. Consumption of more eggs was non-significantly associated with higher T-C and LDL-C and lower HDL-C values. Baumgartner et al. [ 21 ] found that in 57 healthy volunteers (32 females and 25 men) aged 18–65 years, the consumption of one egg / day increased T-C by 0.63 mmol / L and LDL-C by 0.59 mmol / L relative to the control group. On the contrary, in a cohort study with 7216 participants, D í ez-Espino et al. [ 22 ] found that consumption of 2–4 eggs / week was not associated with high cardiovascular risk. From a meta-analysis based on randomized controlled trials, with intervention periods ranging between 3 and 20 weeks and changes in cholesterol intakes between 137 and 897 mg / day, it was estimated that each 100 mg increase in dietary cholesterol intake increased the serum LDL-C concentration by 0.050 mmol / L [ 23 ]. Table 5. E ff ect of consumption of eggs on lipid profile (mmol / L) Number of Eggs / Week n (%) T-C (Average ± SD) LDL-C (Average ± SD) HDL-C (Average ± SD) TG (Average ± SD) no consumption 162 (20.2) 4.06 ± 1.02 2.43 ± 0.94 1.16 ± 0.31 1.45 ± 0.64 1–5 484 (60.5) 4.59 ± 1.10 2.77 ± 0.88 1.17 ± 0.34 1.74 ± 0.88 6–10 134 (16.7) 4.81 ± 1.16 2.92 ± 0.78 1.19 ± 0.44 2.01 ± 1.00 > 10 20 (2.6) 5.30 ± 0.57 3.34 ± 0.28 0.97 ± 1.11 3.81 ± 1.06 p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 < 0.001 a,b Abbreviations: T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides a Significant di ff erence between 1–5 eggs and more than 10 eggs / week b Significant di ff erence between 6–10 eggs and more than 10 eggs / week In our group of respondents, the consumption of fish (sea or freshwater, 1–2 times / week) was recorded in only 35% and 43.1% of men, respectively (Table 6 ). Alarmingly, up to 24% of the patients consumed sea fish only 1–2 times / month. The di ff erent frequencies of fish consumption showed non-significant changes regarding the lipid profile. A meta-analysis of 17 cohort studies showed that both low (one serving / week) and moderate (2–4 servings / week) fish consumption were inversely associated with coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality, while no additional benefits were seen at higher intakes [ 24 ].

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 6 of 12 Table 6. E ff ect of the frequency of consumption of fish on lipid profile Frequency of Consumption n (%) T-C (Average ± SD) LDL-C (Average ± SD) HDL-C (Average ± SD) TG (Average ± SD) Sea fish 1–2 times / week 280 (35.0) 4.64 ± 1.23 2.80 ± 0.97 1.23 ± 0.53 1.70 ± 0.82 1–2 times / month 192 (24.0) 4.48 ± 1.20 2.89 ± 0.97 1.20 ± 0.30 1.54 ± 0.81 sometimes 136 (17.0) 4.49 ± 0.97 2.69 ± 0.79 1.17 ± 0.39 1.78 ± 0.90 no consumption 192 (24.0) 4.65 ± 1.14 2.96 ± 0.98 1.15 ± 0.26 1.98 ± 0.96 p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 0.001 a , 0.022 b Freshwater fish 1–2 times / week 345 (43.1) 4.70 ± 1.26 2.97 ± 1.03 1.15 ± 0.40 1.70 ± 1.08 1–2 times / month 293 (36.6) 4.73 ± 1.16 2.97 ± 1.00 1.15 ± 0.39 1.67 ± 0.91 sometimes 105 (13.1) 4.53 ± 1.10 2.76 ± 0.98 1.15 ± 0.36 1.94 ± 0.98 no consumption 57 (7.2) 4.21 ± 0.99 2.54 ± 0.69 1.11 ± 0.31 1.79 ± 0.83 p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 Abbreviations: T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides a Significant di ff erence between 1–2 times / month and no consumption b Significant di ff erence between 1–2 times / week and no consumption The daily consumption of milk and milk products was recorded in 45.2% of our patients (Table 7 ). The results indicated that T-C, LDL-C, and TG values were highest in patients who consumed medium-fat milk. We recorded a significant e ff ect of milk type on the T-C and LDL-C levels Table 7. E ff ect of milk type and frequency of consumption of milk and dairy products on lipid profile Parameter n (%) T-C (Average ± SD) LDL-C (Average ± SD) HDL-C (Average ± SD) TG (Average ± SD) Type of Milk low-fat 86 (10.7) 4.41 ± 1.26 3.32 ± 1.03 1.20 ± 0.45 1.82 ± 1.06 medium-fat 334 (41.7) 4.52 ± 1.15 2.77 ± 0.97 1.13 ± 0.39 1.59 ± 0.83 whole-fat 173 (21.6) 4.42 ± 1.16 2.64 ± 0.98 1.16 ± 0.42 1.67 ± 0.84 no consumption 207 (26.0) 4.60 ± 1.17 2.87 ± 0.96 1.19 ± 0.37 1.83 ± 1.06 p -value < 0.001 a,b , 0.006 c 0.002 a , < 0.001 b , 0.015 c > 0.05 > 0.05 Frequency of Dairy Product Consumption daily 362 (45.2) 4.90 ± 1.22 2.81 ± 1.01 1.49 ± 0.57 1.70 ± 1.37 3–4 times / week 166 (20.7) 4.52 ± 0.99 2.48 ± 0.97 1.38 ± 0.30 1.44 ± 0.65 1–2 times / week 248 (31.0) 4.82 ± 1.52 2.82 ± 1.12 1.45 ± 0.42 1.59 ± 0.90 no consumption 24 (3.1) 5.03 ± 0.93 3.01 ± 0.65 1.21 ± 0.44 2.40 ± 1.54 p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 Abbreviations: T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides a Significant di ff erence between mediumfat and low-fat milk b Significant di ff erence between whole-fat and low-fat milk c Significant di ff erence between no consumption and low-fat milk Among the 800 participants in our study, 64.7% ate fruit and 54.7% ate vegetables as part of their daily diet (Table 8 ). Respondents who consumed fruits and vegetables daily had higher T-C and LDL-C values. Except for the impact of fruit consumption on HDL-C levels ( p < 0.001), the di ff erent frequencies of fruit consumption showed non-significant changes in the lipid levels. We detected a significant e ff ect ( p = 0.017) of the consumption of vegetables 1–2 times / week on LDL-C in favor of daily consumption.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 7 of 12 Table 8. E ff ect of the frequency of consumption of fruit and vegetables on lipid profile Type of Food n (%) T-C (Average ± SD) LDL-C (Average ± SD) HDL-C (Average ± SD) TG (Average ± SD) Fruit daily 518 (64.7) 4.60 ± 1.17 2.89 ± 0.98 1.13 ± 0.37 1.63 ± 0.83 3–4 times / week 146 (18.2) 4.55 ± 1.22 2.80 ± 0.94 1.14 ± 0.37 1.71 ± 0.82 1–2 times / week 120 (15.0) 4.64 ± 1.49 2.64 ± 1.20 1.43 ± 0.43 1.38 ± 0.95 no consumption 16 (2.1) 4.20 ± 0.61 2.57 ± 0.62 1.20 ± 0.27 1.53 ± 0.62 p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 < 0.001 a,b > 0.05 Vegetable daily 438 (54.7) 4.79 ± 1.12 2.72 ± 0.89 1.45 ± 0.51 1.76 ± 1.11 3–4 times / week 170 (21.3) 5.02 ± 1.32 3.02 ± 1.13 1.43 ± 0.37 1.40 ± 0.63 1–2 times / week 137 (17.1) 5.14 ± 1.37 3.09 ± 1.15 1.49 ± 0.37 1.46 ± 1.22 no consumption 55 (6.9) 4.58 ± 1.30 2.70 ± 0.99 1.20 ± 0.32 1.78 ± 0.59 p -value > 0.05 0.017 a > 0.05 > 0.05 Abbreviations: T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides a Significant di ff erence between daily and 1–2 times / week b Significant di ff erence between 3–4 times / week and 1–2 times / week The study group also analyzed the correlation of Spearman’s rank order (r) with division into age groups, BMI value, and smoking status. Significance was assumed when p < 0.05 Table 9 presents the Kruskal–Wallis rank ANOVA by age group. No statistically significant correlation was found in this analysis Table 9. Kruskal–Wallis rank analysis of variance (ANOVA) by age group Age n Glucose Me (Q 1; Q 3) T-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) LDL-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) HDL-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) TG Me (Q 1; Q 3) BMI Me (Q 1; Q 3) < 30 8 5.34 3.13 2.05 0.79 1.31 26.77 (4.77; 7.15) (3.00; 5.05) (1.95; 3.24) (0.72; 1.05) (1.01; 2.58) (17.90; 28.06) 31–55 105 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 (5.31; 7.20) (5.31; 7.20) (5.31; 7.20) (5.31; 7.20) (5.31; 7.20) (5.31; 7.20) 56–75 616 5.93 4.60 2.84 1.10 1.51 29.06 (5.31; 7.27) (3.79; 5.54) (2.19; 3.48) (0.91; 1.34) (1.10; 2.21) (26.83; 31.38) > 75 71 6.00 4.83 3.11 1.10 1.39 29.05 (5.18; 7.40) (3.92; 5.99) (2.15; 3.72) (0.91; 1.34) (0.88; 2.18) (26.85; 30.45) p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 Abbreviations: Me: median; Q 1: lower quartile; Q 3: upper quartile; BMI: body mass index; T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides Next, an ANOVA of the Kruskal–Wallis ranks was performed with the division of the BMI index range (Table 10 ). Significance was assumed when p < 0.05. No statistically significant correlation was found in this analysis Table 10. Kruskal–Wallis rank ANOVA analysis by BMI group BMI n Glucose Me (Q 1; Q 3) T-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) LDL-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) HDL-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) TG Me (Q 1; Q 3) < 18.49 3 4.77 (4.77; 5.30) 3.13 (3.13; 6.93) 2.05 (2.05; 3.85) 0.72 (0.72; 1.13) 1.24 (1.24; 3.48) 18.5–24.99 93 6.40 (5.22; 7.20) 5.95 (5.31; 7.20) 5.95 (5.31; 7.20) 5.95 (5.31; 7.20) 5.95 (5.31; 7.20) 25–29.99 401 6.00 (5.31; 7.27) 4.60 (3.79; 5.54) 2.84 (2.19; 3.48) 1.10 (0.91; 1.34) 1.51 (1.10; 2.21) > 30 303 5.90 (5.31; 7.20) 4.72 (3.83; 5.55) 2.83 (2.20; 3.73) 1.10 (0.89; 1.36) 1.66 (1.16; 2.35) p -value > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 Abbreviations: Me: median; Q 1: lower quartile; Q 3: upper quartile; BMI: body mass index; T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 8 of 12 Next, an ANOVA of the Kruskal–Wallis ranks was performed with the sample divided into smokers and non-smokers (Table 11 ). Significance was assumed when p < 0.05. No statistically significant correlation was found in this analysis Table 11. Kruskal–Wallis rank ANOVA analysis by smoker group Smoker n Glucose Me (Q 1; Q 3) T-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) LDL-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) HDL-C Me (Q 1; Q 3) TG Me (Q 1; Q 3) no 532 5.88 (5.38; 7.20) * 4.71 (3.83; 5.57) 2.87 (2.21; 3.54) 1.11 (0.94; 1.36) 1.52 (1.05; 2.27) yes 268 6.14 (5.22; 7.40) * 4.50 (3.79; 5.46) 2.83 (2.12; 3.45) 1.09 (0.91; 1.36) 1.46 (1.13; 2.04) p -value < 0.03 * > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 Abbreviations: Me: median; Q 1: lower quartile; Q 3: upper quartile; BMI: body mass index; T-C: total cholesterol; LDL-C: LDL cholesterol; HDL-C: HDL cholesterol; TG: triglycerides; * Kruskal–Wallis ranks In the next stage, the Mann–Whitney U test was carried out, taking into account the status of smoking cigarettes. Significance was assumed when p < 0.05. There were statistically significant di ff erences in glucose concentration between smokers and non-smokers (Table 11 ). Table 12 shows the results of the significance of Spearman’s rank correlation (r > 0.5) by group Significance was assumed when p < 0.05. Spearman’s rank correlations were found to be statistically significant (r > 0.5) Table 12. Correlations by Spearman’s rank Glucose T-C LDL-C HDL-C TG Glucose - − 0.047 − 0.032 − 0.21 * 0.067 T-C − 0.047 - 0.87 * 0.27 * 0.26 * LDL-C − 0.032 0.87 * - 0.10 * 0.16 * HDL-C − 0.21 * 0.27 * 0.10 * - − 0.26 * TG 0.067 0.26 * 0.16 * − 0.26 * - Spearman’s rank correlations. Significance was assumed when p < 0.05 *; Bold, the correlations statistically significant in the analysis of Spearman's rank correlation at the significance level p > 0.5 It was found that there were statistically significant correlations between the selected biochemical indices. With the increase in glucose, the concentration of HDL-cholesterol fraction drops statistically significantly (r = − 0.21). As the concentration of triglycerides increases, the concentration of the HDL cholesterol ratio decreases (r = − 0.26) Due to the fact that in the age / BMI / smoker groups, no equal variances were found, the research hypothesis did not allow for a two-factor analysis 4. Discussion The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study included nearly 500,000 participants across 10 European countries and more than 5000 cardiovascular events. It confirmed that the consumption of processed meat is strongly associated with CVD risk and that the consumption of unprocessed red meat has little to no association [ 25 ]. In a meta-analysis of 20 studies (17 prospective cohorts and three case–control studies) that included 1,218,380 individuals, Micha et al. [ 26 ] concluded that intake of processed, but not red, meat was associated with an increased incidence of CHD. The authors further speculated that the higher sodium and nitrate content of processed meat might contribute to its impact on CVD Since the discovery that eggs, and especially egg yolks, contain a notable quantity of cholesterol, numerous studies have tried to investigate the e ff ect of egg consumption on the risk of CVD. Following the results of these studies, it is now widely known that dietary cholesterol intake does not noticeably a ff ect fasting plasma lipid profile, and some studies showed that eggs might even have anti-atherogenic properties [ 27 ]. Although eggs are a major source of dietary cholesterol, they are also an inexpensive source of unsaturated fat, high-quality protein, folate, and other vitamins and minerals [ 28 ].

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 9 of 12 Many studies suggest that increasing fish consumption is recommended for the intake of omega-3 fatty acids and also to confer benefits for CVD risk reduction [ 29 ]. In a prospective analysis on 20,969 subjects free from CVD at baseline, Bonaccio et al. [ 30 ] detected that fish was consumed by almost all subjects in the cohort (99.5%). Beyond promoting a healthy dietary lifestyle overall, dietary guidelines recommend eating fish at least twice (two servings) a week [ 30 ] because of the well-documented inverse association with risk of developing CVD (supported by several meta-analyses) Mean total fish intake in the study sample was 44.6 g / day, and mean frequency of fish intake was 2.4 times / week The results of the observational study, regardless of the level of milk fat, have not found a link between milk product intake and increased risk of CHD, stroke, or other heart and vessel diseases. Short-term intervention studies have shown that whole milk and butter increase not only LDL-C, but also HDL-C, and, therefore, may not a ff ect plasma levels (or could reduce T-C to HDL-C) [ 31 ]. Milk and dairy products are a source of energy and high-quality protein, and they also contain important trace elements in our diet [ 32 ]. Consumption of milk and its products is one of the key elements of a rational, balanced diet. In the case of mammals, milk is the first food that provides energy and all the necessary nutrients to ensure proper growth and development. This highlights the very important role of milk and its products as a source of calcium, which plays a key role in the formation of bone mass. However, there is some controversy about the consumption of dairy and dairy products in adulthood, especially concerning non-human milk. Despite these controversies, epidemiological studies support the possible role of its consumption in preventing many chronic diseases, such as CVD, some forms of cancer, obesity, and diabetes [ 33 ]. The association of milk or dairy product consumption with CVD is still controversial [ 34 , 35 ]. Milk and dairy products have been shown to have a beneficial e ff ect on lowering blood pressure and increasing HDL-C, which is associated with a reduced risk of CVD [ 32 ]. Most dietary guidelines recommend 2–3 servings of dairy products / day [ 36 , 37 ]. More recently, Drouin-Chartier et al. [ 38 ] conducted a randomized control trial involving 76 patients with mild to moderate hypertension. It was found that consuming a total of three servings per day of milk (low-fat), yoghurt (low-fat), and cheese (regular-fat) significantly reduced the mean daytime systolic blood pressure (2 mmHg; p = 0.05) in men but not in women when compared with a dairy-free control diet. In terms of cardiovascular health, however, the fat content of these products is important [ 31 ]. Fruits and vegetables are highly nutritious products, containing large amounts of dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and are also characterized by a high antioxidant potential. It is believed that higher consumption of these product groups reduces the risk of developing chronic diseases, including diseases of the cardiovascular system. Therefore, it is recommended to include five portions of fruits and vegetables in daily food rations [ 39 ]. From randomized controlled studies, fruits and vegetables were shown to have a favorable e ff ect on several risk factors, including: blood pressure, lipid concentration, insulin resistance, inflammatory biomarker concentrations, endothelial function, and weight control [ 40 , 41 ]. He et al. [ 41 ] reported that the average fruit and vegetable intake in most developed countries is three portions / day, which is below the recommended amount of at least five portions / day. P é rez [ 42 ] states that women consume fruits and vegetables more often than men, and men with diagnosed cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure, or diabetes mellitus tend to consume these foods more often than healthy men Although this study provided new insight into the relationship between selected eating habits and the lipid profiles of patients with cardiovascular disease, it has some limitations. First, the study was conducted only on the population of one country, so it provides detailed information only about that particular population, and should be reproduced in other countries. Moreover, the study only looked at men, while, in fact, the relationship between eating habits is, of course, also relevant among women. In subsequent studies, it is worth conducting similar studies among people of both sexes. Additionally, comparisons of the results obtained by gender would probably be very valuable. Another limitation of

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 7605 10 of 12 the publication may also be unequal age groups, unequal groups, and a very large discrepancy within the group when it comes to the respondents. Finally, the study only assessed the declared behaviors, which were not verified by direct observational research techniques 5. Conclusions In our study, we observed the associations between selected dietary habits and lipid profiles in a group of randomly selected patients with CVD. Our results showed a positive relationship between a higher daily eating frequency and lower levels of T-C and LDL-C. We have not confirmed the e ff ect of more frequent consumption of red meat on higher T-C and LDL-C levels. Consumption of more than 10 eggs was associated with higher T-C, LDL-C, and lower HDL-C levels. We recorded a significant di ff erence between the e ff ect of low-fat and whole-fat milk consumption on the T-C and LDL-C levels Except for the impact of fruit consumption on HDL-C level, the di ff erent frequencies of consumption of fruit showed non-significant changes regarding the profile of lipid levels. We found a positive e ff ect of daily consumption of vegetables on LDL-C, compared with consumption 1–2 times / week. Our results support the hypothesis that diet is one of the most important determinants in CVD and its associated risk factors Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.K. and M.H. (Marta Hab á nov á ); methodology, J.K.; software, J.M. and M.G.; validation, J.K., M.H. (Marta Hab á nov á ), and M.H. (M á ria Holoviˇcov á ); formal analysis, J.K.; investigation, M.H. (M á ria Holoviˇcov á ); resources, M.G. and L.M.; data curation, M.H. (Marta Hab á nov á ); writing—original draft preparation, J.K.; writing—review and editing, M.B.; visualization, J.M.; supervision, M.H. (Marta Hab á nov á ); project administration, J.K.; funding acquisition, M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript Funding: This research received no external funding Acknowledgments: We express our gratitude to the participants for their contributions to the study, and also to the Nitra Cardio Center, APVV-18-0227 Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest References 1 Gaziano, T.A.; Bitton, A.; Anand, S.; Abrahams-Gessel, S.; Murphy, A. Growing epidemic of coronary heart disease in lowand middle-income countries Curr. Probl. Cardiol 2010 , 35 , 72–115. [ CrossRef ] 2 Mittal, B.V.; Singh, A.K. Hypertension in the developing world: Challenges and opportunities Am. J Kidney Dis 2010 , 55 , 590–598. [ CrossRef ] 3 Carpentier, Y.A.; Komsa-Penkova, R.S. The place of nutrition in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) e-SPEN Eur. e-J. Clin. Nutr. Metab 2011 , 6 , e 272–e 282. [ CrossRef ] 4 Torres, N.; Guevara-Cruz, M.; Vel á zquez-Villegas, L.A.; Tovar, A.R. Nutrition and atherosclerosis Arch. Med. Res 2015 , 46 , 408–426. [ CrossRef ] 5 Sofi, F.; Macchi, C.; Abbate, R.; Gensini, G.F.; Casini, A. Mediterranean diet and health status: An updated meta-analysis and a proposal for a literature-based adherence score J. Health Nutr 2014 , 17 , 2769–2782 [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] 6 Keys, A.; Mienotti, A.; Karvonen, M.J.; Aravanis, C.; Blackburn, H.; Buzina, R.; Djordjevic, B.S.; Dontas, A.S.; Fidanza, F.; Keys, M.H.; et al. The diet and 15-year death rate in the Seven Countries Study Am. J. Epidemiol 1986 , 124 , 903–915. [ CrossRef ] 7 Keller, K.; L ó pez, S.R.; Moreno, M.C.; Cantero, P.A. Associations between food consumption habits with meal intake behaviour in Spanish adults Appetite 2014 , 83 , 63–68. [ CrossRef ] 8 Ambrosini, G.L.; Huang, R.C.; Mori, T.A.; Hands, B.P.; O’Sullivan, T.A.; de Klerk, N.H.; Beilin, L.J.; Oddy, W.H. Dietary patterns and markers for the metabolic syndrome in Australian adolescents Nutr. Metab Cardiovasc. Dis 2010 , 20 , 274–283. [ CrossRef ] 9 Astrup, A.; Magkos, F.; Bier, D.M.; Brenna, J.T.; Otto, M.C.O.; Hill, J.O.; King, J.C.; Mente, A.; Ordovas, J.M.; Volek, J.S.; et al. Saturated fats and health: A reassessment and proposal for food-based recommendations J. Am. Coll. Cardiol 2020 , 76 , 844–857. [ CrossRef ]

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Discover the significance of concepts within the article: ‘Association between Selected Dietary Habits and Lipid Profiles of Patients...’. Further sources in the context of Environmental Sciences might help you critically compare this page with similair documents:

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