Mongols, Buddhism, and State in Late Imperial China
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Johan Elverskog, Our Great Qing. The Mongols, Buddhism, and the State in Late Imperial China
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions” publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales”)
This page presents a generated summary with additional references; See source (below) for actual content.
Subtitle: Honolulu, University of Hawai’i Press, 2006, xviii + 243 p.
Original source:
This page is merely a summary which is automatically generated hence you should visit the source to read the original article which includes the author, publication date, notes and references.
Françoise Aubin
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly”)
Full text available for: Johan Elverskog, Our Great Qing. The Mongols, Buddhism, and the State in Late Imperial China
Year: 2008 | Doi: 10.4000/assr.15243
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
Introduction
Johan Elverskog's book, Our Great Qing. The Mongols, Buddhism, and the State in Late Imperial China, critically examines the long-held belief that the Qing Dynasty's Manchu rulers successfully utilized Tibetan Buddhism to secure the loyalty of Mongol princes. Published by the University of Hawai’i Press in 2006, Elverskog challenges the prevailing narrative that represents the Mongols as effectively subjugated by the ruling dynasty, arguing instead that the historical relationship and integration were far more complex. The work, enriched with a wealth of Mongolian manuscripts and a profound bibliographical insight, explores the perspectives of the Mongols during the Qing period and critiques the existing historiography.
Concept of Ulŭs and Törö
One critical concept discussed in Elverskog's work is the distinction between ulŭs and törö, which relate to Mongolian political identity. The term ulŭs refers to an independent and permanent community or people, while törö is seen as the governmental system that would traditionally accompany this form of political organization. Elverskog posits that during the early 17th century, no unified ulŭs resembling a cohesive Mongolian state existed, as the region was fragmented into various rival groups, each vying for power. The author illustrates how Mongols viewed their political affiliations with the Manchus through this lens of ulŭs and törö, highlighting that the Qing transformation of these entities into rigid "banners" drastically altered the fluid Mongolian political landscape.
The Symbolism of Power
Elverskog also delves into the symbolic elements of power among the Mongols and the Manchus. Before the Qing, Mongol sovereignty was legitimized through dual symbols—secular authority endorsed by Gengis Khan’s spiritual legacy and Buddhist principles. The early Qing emperors adopted and adapted these symbols seamlessly, portraying themselves as both secular sovereigns and spiritual figures like the Cakravartin. Elverskog details how the first Manchu emperors appropriated Mongolian elite symbols of power to redesign their authority to fit into the existing Mongolian political schema, thereby enhancing their legitimacy among the aristocracy.
The Third Conversion to Buddhism
Elverskog further explores the evolution of Buddhist identity among the Mongols, particularly noting a "third conversion to Buddhism" during the Qing Dynasty. This conversion reflects the Qing emperors' endorsement and promotion of Tibetan Buddhism, specifically the Gelugpa tradition, which ultimately led to a syncretized Mongolian identity intimately tied to the Qing rule. The emperor Shunzhi's alliance with the Fifth Dalai Lama solidified this partnership, marking a critical juncture in which being Mongolian, practicing Buddhism, and being a subject of the Qing became interlinked identities. This transformation signified the loss of an independent Mongolian Buddhist identity and the rise of a Sino-Mongolian religious amalgamation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Our Great Qing is a nuanced examination of the intricate relationships between the Mongols and the Qing dynasty that extends far beyond simplistic narratives of submission and domination. Elverskog's comprehensive analysis, offering insights into political, symbolic, and religious dimensions of Mongolian identity under the Qing, challenges historiographical norms and invites new interpretations of Mongolian history. His work establishes a foundation for understanding the complex dynamics of identity, power, and religion in late imperial China, opening avenues for both Mongolian studies and broader historical discourse.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What is the main theme of Johan Elverskog's book, Our Great Qing?
The book challenges the widely accepted notion that Qing rulers used Tibetan Buddhism to assimilate Mongol princes and examines the complex relationships between the Qing dynasty, Mongolian identity, and Buddhism in late imperial China.
How does Elverskog critique the traditional understanding of Mongolian allegiance?
Elverskog argues against the idea that Mongols were easily assimilated due to their Buddhist beliefs, pointing out that many of the most resistant Mongols were, in fact, devout Buddhists, while many who allied with the Qing were shamanists.
What sources does Elverskog utilize to support his arguments?
He employs a vast array of Mongolian manuscripts, Western-language literature, and historical texts to highlight the perspectives of Mongolians during the Qing period, providing a fresh understanding of their identity.
Why is background knowledge in Mongolian history important when reading this book?
The text is rich with references to Mongolian historical context, which may be confusing for readers without foundational knowledge, making it crucial to familiarize oneself with Mongolian history for better comprehension.
What transformation in Mongolian identity does Elverskog describe in his book?
He details how, over time, Mongolian identity evolved, particularly through Buddhism's impact, leading to the merging of Mongolian and Buddhist identities while intertwining with the Qing dynasty's authority.
How does the book address the role of religion in Mongolian identity?
Elverskog discusses the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism as a unifying factor under Qing rule, asserting that being Mongolian became intrinsically linked with being a follower of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “Mongols, Buddhism, and State in Late Imperial China”. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
The term 'Buddhist' describes followers of Buddhism, particularly Tibetan Buddhism in this context. The Qing dynasty's promotion of Tibetan Buddhist practices signifies the intertwining of religious identity with imperial authority, as both Mongolian and Manchu rulers claimed legitimacy through Buddhist teachings and practices.
2) Khan:
The term 'Khan' refers to historical Mongolian leaders, including Genghis Khan, who symbolize a powerful legacy. In the context of this work, Khan signifies the rulers who are seen as deified leaders as well as models of sovereignty over diverse peoples and territories, influencing present-day Mongolian identity.
3) China:
China serves as the geopolitical backdrop for the development of the Qing dynasty and the Mongolian experience. The narrative engages with the interplay between Mongolian and Chinese cultures, particularly in the context of the conquests that intertwined their destinies and the evolution of governance.
4) Identity:
Identity within the Mongolian context is shaped by various factors, including religion (specifically Tibetan Buddhism), social structures, and political allegiance. The transformation of identity is a central theme examining how the Qing dynasty redefined Mongolian identity through a process of cultural assimilation and imperial influence.
5) Dynasty:
The term 'Dynasty' specifically refers to the Qing dynasty that ruled China and influenced the political landscape of Mongolia. The Qing dynasty's strategies and policies towards Mongolian peoples are crucial for understanding the historical dynamics of power during this imperial period.
6) Tibetan:
Tibetan refers to the form of Buddhism that gained prominence during the Qing dynasty, which the Manchu rulers adopted to solidify their rule over Mongolian territories. Tibetan Buddhism became the predominant religious framework, transforming Mongolian spiritual and cultural practices.
7) Power:
Power in the context of this work relates to the mechanisms through which the Qing dynasty exerted control over Mongolian princes and their people. The dynamics of power are explored through the lens of religion, governance, and identity construction amidst the backdrop of imperial rule.
8) Religion:
Religion, particularly Tibetan Buddhism, is a critical component of the Mongolian experience under Qing rule. The transformation of religious practices influences social cohesion and allegiance, illustrating the role of religion as an instrument of power and cultural identity.
9) Gelugpa:
The Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism is central to the narrative, representing the religious identity adopted by the Qing rulers. The Qing's allegiance to Gelugpa Buddhism signifies a strategic religious partnership that facilitated their control over Mongolian territories and helped unify the empire.
10) Heaven:
Heaven, or tengri, is a central concept in Mongolian spirituality, symbolizing a divine authority that grants legitimacy to rulers. In the context of Qing rule, the integration of the concept of Heaven with Buddhism illustrates the complexities of Mongolian political and cultural identity.
11) Tibetan Buddhism:
Tibetan Buddhism is the primary religious practice that permeated Mongolian life during the Qing dynasty. The state promotion of this form of Buddhism reshaped Mongolian identity and created a new framework for understanding authority, governance, and cultural exchange.
12) Cakravartin (Cakravarti, Cakra-vartin):
Cakravartin refers to a universal ruler or king in Buddhist texts, and this concept is associated with Qing emperors. The Qing rulers' self-identification as Cakravartin emphasizes their divine right to rule and their place within the broader Buddhist narrative.
13) Sambhala (Shambhala):
Shambhala is a mythical kingdom in Tibetan Buddhism envisioned as a utopia. Its revival in the 19th century reflected a longing for religious purity amidst the political complexities of the time, emphasizing how celestial narratives shaped Mongolian identity against perceived external threats.
14) Sacrifice:
Sacrifice is a significant ritual act among Mongolian peoples, symbolizing commitment and alliance. The white horse and black bovine sacrifices during the first Mongolian rallying to the Manchus illustrate the traditional practices intertwined with political agreements and loyalties.
15) Language:
Language functions as a means of cultural expression, particularly as the Qing sought to promote Tibetan as the language of worship. Changes in language usage reflect broader shifts in Mongolian identity and cultural integration within the Qing empire.
16) Worship:
Worship refers to the religious practices associated with Tibetan Buddhism, which became a central aspect of Mongolian identity during Qing rule. The state sponsorship of Buddhist rituals illustrates how the Qing appropriated religious practices to enhance their authority.
17) Throne:
The throne symbolizes imperial power and the connection between the ruler and divine authority. The narrative explores how the Qing dynasty consolidated power and legitimized authority through the appropriation of traditional symbols of kingship.
18) Future:
The future implications of Qing rule and Mongolian identity are reflected in the shifting power dynamics and cultural identity that emerged during this period. Understanding these transformations provides insights into the continued evolution of Mongolian identity into modern times.
19) Sutra:
Sūtra refers to sacred texts in Buddhism, which played a crucial role in legitimizing the authority of the Qing dynasty. The relation of various Buddhist texts to Mongolian rulers highlights the significance of written religious doctrine in shaping cultural ideologies.
20) Horse:
The horse is a significant symbol in Mongolian culture, especially in the context of traditional sacrifices and allegiances. It represents strength and a connection to the nomadic heritage of the Mongolian people, integral to their identity.
21) Jewel:
The jewel symbolizes divinity and power in Mongolian culture, particularly as it relates to the jade seal claimed by Qing Emperor Hong Taiji. This act of claiming the jewel enhances the narrative of legitimizing authority through historical artifacts.
22) White:
White often symbolizes purity and truth in Mongolian culture. The white horse sacrificed during alliances illustrates the cultural and spiritual significance of this color as a representation of loyalty and commitment.
23) Lama:
Lama refers to religious teachers in Tibetan Buddhism, whose influence shapes the relationships between Mongolian rulers and the Qing dynasty. The presence of Lamas in Mongolian society reflects the intertwining of religion and political authority.
24) Common People (Common Folk):
The common people of Mongolia experienced significant changes in identity and cultural practices under the Qing dynasty. Their integration into the wider socio-political framework illustrates the complexities of power dynamics between the state and society.
25) Dalai Lama:
The Dalai Lama represents the highest spiritual leader in Tibetan Buddhism, particularly during Qing rule. Qing emperors sought to strengthen ties with the Dalai Lama to legitimize their authority and promote Gelugpa Buddhism in Mongolia.
26) Transformation (Transform, Transforming):
Transformation refers to the extensive changes in Mongolian identity and practices during Qing rule, particularly through the appropriation of Tibetan Buddhism. These shifts illustrate the ongoing interplay between political power and cultural identity.
27) Knowledge:
[see source text or glossary: Knowledge]
28) Testimony:
[see source text or glossary: Testimony]
29) Exercise:
[see source text or glossary: Exercise]
30) Unstable:
The concept of being unstable relates to the fluid political structures among Mongolian peoples before and during Qing rule. The rival ulus system generated political instability, which the Qing attempted to stabilize through imposed governance structures.
31) Critique:
[see source text or glossary: Critique]
32) Conquest:
Conquest refers to the military expansion of the Qing dynasty, leading to the reorganization of Mongolian societies. The processes of conquest significantly reshaped the relationships between different cultural identities and power structures.
33) Peaceful:
[see source text or glossary: Peaceful]
34) Karmapa:
Karmapa refers to another prominent lineage of Tibetan Buddhism that historically influenced Mongolian Buddhism. The interactions with various Buddhist sects underscore the dynamic religious landscape shaping Mongolian identity.
35) Eternal:
[see source text or glossary: Eternal]
36) Panchen (Pänchen, pan chen):
Panchen refers to a high-level title in Tibetan Buddhism, and its holders played significant roles in legitimizing and supporting Qing rulership over Mongolian territories. The intertwining of their authority highlights the complexities of Buddhist leadership.
37) Buddha:
Buddha signifies the enlightened one in Buddhism, whose teachings form the backbone of Buddhist philosophy. The Mongolian rulers' identification with the Buddha illustrates the blending of religious and political narratives.
38) Family:
Family plays a critical role in determining social status and power dynamics in Mongolian society. The ties between the Mongolian aristocracy and Manchu families through marriage influenced the political landscape during the Qing dynasty.
39) Debate:
Debate represents the discourse surrounding Mongolian identity and its redefinition under Qing influence. The work examines various viewpoints on historical narratives and cultural representations as they pertain to power and identity.
40) Riddle:
[see source text or glossary: Riddle]
41) Yellow:
Yellow signifies the geographical reference to areas like the Yellow River, which is significant in understanding the cultural and political identity of Inner Mongolia and its integration into the Qing empire.
42) Avatara (Avatar):
Avatar refers to the concept of divine incarnation in Buddhism, particularly in the portrayal of rulers. Identifying Qing emperors as avatars illustrates the fusion of spiritual authority and temporal power.
43) Shakya (Sakya):
Sakya refers to a historical school of Tibetan Buddhism that influenced Mongolian spirituality. The coexistence of various Buddhist traditions illustrates the complexity of the religious landscape before the predominance of Gelugpa.
44) Black:
Black in the context of sacrifice may symbolize strength or loyalty. The black bovine sacrificed during the initial alliance reflects deep cultural associations with offerings and allegiance.
45) River:
[see source text or glossary: River]
46) Truth:
[see source text or glossary: Truth]
47) Limit (Limiting, Limited):
[see source text or glossary: Limit]
48) Agent:
[see source text or glossary: Agent]
49) King:
[see source text or glossary: King]
50) Pari:
[see source text or glossary: Pari]
51) Fear:
[see source text or glossary: Fear]
52) Cult:
Cult here refers to the reverence of historical figures like Genghis Khan, illustrating how cultural elements evolved under Qing rule. The cultivation of such cults influences identity formation and political legitimacy.
53) Lead:
Lead illustrates the act of guiding, particularly concerning the Qing rulers' influence over Mongolian princes. Their leadership sought to unify disparate groups under Qing authority, showcasing political strategies employed.
54) Firm:
Firm denotes the resolute nature of certain alliances formed between Mongolian princes and Qing rulers. The stability of these relationships reflects the intricate balancing of power, identity, and allegiance.