A National Church for the Santals: From Scandinavian to Lutheran
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Une Église nationale pour les Santals : du romantisme scandinave à l'orthodoxie luthérienne / A National Church for the Santals: From Scandinavian Romanticism to Lutheran Orthodoxy
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions” publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales”)
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Marine Carrin
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly”)
Full text available for: Une Église nationale pour les Santals : du romantisme scandinave à l'orthodoxie luthérienne / A National Church for the Santals: From Scandinavian Romanticism to Lutheran Orthodoxy
Year: 1998
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
Introduction
In this article, Marine Carrin and Harald Tambs-Lyche explore the establishment of a national church for the Santal tribe in India by two Scandinavian missionaries, Lars Skrefsrud and H.P. Börresen, starting from the 1860s. The authors delve into the complex interplay between cultural adaptation, the missionaries' intent to preserve Santal identity, and the overarching influence of Lutheran orthodoxy. This study illustrates the efforts of these missionaries to balance between their evangelical mission and the socio-cultural integration of the Santal people.
Understanding Indigenization
One of the central themes in the article is the concept of "indigenization." This refers to the missionaries’ approach of adapting Christian practices to fit the cultural norms of the Santal tribe, who were historically marginalized in colonial India. Unlike the Catholic Church, which often employs a strategy of cultural adjustment through its missionary work, Protestant missionaries like Skrefsrud and Börresen aimed to create an independent church that acknowledged and preserved the Santal's cultural distinctiveness. This perspective is informed by the missionaries' belief in a Christ-centered community that respects indigenous traditions.
The Cultural Identity of the Santal
The missionaries regarded the Santal as a distinct cultural group worthy of their own national church, independent of any colonial state. They perceived the tribal identity of the Santal as something that needed affirmation and protection, viewing the Santal community as a "nation" with its own unique spirit. Skrefsrud, for instance, emphasized recognizing the Santal's cultural characteristics while promoting the idea that they could maintain their traditions while embracing Christianity. This approach created a dialogue between Christian beliefs and Santal customs, but it also laid the groundwork for future tensions.
Influence of Colonial Power Dynamics
The missionary efforts faced significant challenges partly due to the colonial context in which they operated. The British colonial administration had a complex relationship with Indigenous tribes, often undermining traditional practices and land rights. As the Santal underwent economic and social changes due to colonial policies, they experienced marginalization and exploitation by non-tribal intermediaries. The missionaries tried to support the Santal in their struggles against exploitation while also mobilizing them around their new faith, leading to efforts that sometimes contradicted traditional tribal values.
Resistance and Evolving Identity
As the mission progressed, it became evident that both converted and unconverted Santal faced various pressures. Many Santal who converted to Christianity experienced backlash from their traditional peers, leading to a fractured community identity. There were also rising tensions from internal movements within the Santal tribe, like the Kherwar movement, which advocated for a more orthodox approach to Santal spiritual beliefs. The missionaries' attempts to synthesize these dynamics often resulted in complications and resistance from the community, who saw their identity as being challenged.
The Institutionalization Dilemma
The desire to establish a self-governing church began to conflict with the necessity for structural and financial support from Scandinavia. As the mission sought legitimacy and funding, it increasingly conformed to traditional Lutheran norms, creating a significant shift from its original goal of an independent Santal church. This increased scrutiny from Scandinavian churches compromised the indigenous mission, as the community faced a gradual loss of autonomy in favor of becoming part of a more extensive, centralized ecclesiastical structure.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the efforts of Skrefsrud and Börresen to create an independent national church for the Santal people illustrate the complex interrelations of mission work, cultural preservation, and colonial influence. While they successfully instigated early engagement with Santal cultural identity and aimed for a church that reflected indigenous values, the eventual institutional demands and political pressures led to an erosion of these ideals. Ultimately, the desire for a national church diminished as the mission became subsumed by broader Lutheran orthodoxy and external economic dependencies, highlighting the challenges of navigating cultural and religious transformations in a colonial context.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What did Scandinavian missionaries aim to establish for the Santals?
The Scandinavian missionaries aimed to found a 'national' Church for the Santals, tailored to their cultural norms, rather than imposing foreign traditions.
How did the missionaries differ from Hindu reformers of that time?
Unlike Hindu reformers advocating a 'universal religion,' the missionaries focused on defending Santal rights and becoming social reformers within their specific context.
What challenges did the missionaries face in protecting the Santals?
The missionaries struggled to protect the Santals from exploitation by Hindu middlemen, who took advantage of the Santals' vulnerable position during colonization.
What happened to the missionaries' power over the mission?
The missionaries gradually lost power as they became subordinate to support committees established in Scandinavia, which influenced their decisions and direction.
What influence did Scandinavian Lutheran Churches have on the mission?
The mission increasingly conformed to the demands of the Lutheran Churches, which altered its originally intended national character and objectives.
What was the initial reception of the missionaries by the Santals?
Initially, the missionaries gained a warm reception from the Santals, who were seeking alternatives and opportunities in the wake of colonial disruption.
What cultural aspects did the missionaries respect in their mission?
The missionaries respected Santal cultural aspects, incorporating local customs into their practices while striving to maintain the Santals' identity within Christianity.
How did the missionaries' vision of the Church evolve over time?
The vision evolved from an independent national Church to one influenced heavily by Scandinavian Lutheranism, compromising its original objectives and cultural specificity.
What was one significant challenge that emerged from within the Santal community?
The Kherwar movement arose within the Santal community, emphasizing purity and resisting Christian influences, which posed a challenge to the missionaries' efforts.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “A National Church for the Santals: From Scandinavian to Lutheran”. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) India:
India is the geographic and cultural context of the Santal mission, where Scandinavian missionaries aimed to establish a national church. Their work among the Santals highlights the diverse religious landscape and the missionaries' attempts to adapt Protestant teachings to indigenous customs. This transformation was intended to empower the Santal community within the context of their own culture.
2) Village:
The Santal mission operated in various villages, with specific focus on communities like Rampur and Benagaria, emphasizing the importance of village dynamics and local governance in shaping religious practices. The missionaries engaged with village chiefs to establish roots for Christianity, often organizing gatherings that reflect both Santal traditions and Christian teachings.
3) Power:
Power dynamics between the missionaries and the Santal chiefs were complex. The missionaries aimed to empower the Santal community while negotiating their authority in a colonial context, highlighting the interplay of spiritual and social power within tribal life. The struggle for power is seen in how the Santals sought to maintain their cultural identity amid missionary influence.
4) Religion:
Religion serves as the core foundation of the missionaries' work among the Santals, with efforts aimed at establishing a national church that respects indigenous beliefs. This includes adapting Christian teachings to fit into the Santal worldviews, a blend of pagan practices and Protestant faith that acknowledged their religious identity.
5) Bengal (Bemgal):
Bengal is significant as the region where the Santal mission was established. The cultural and political atmosphere of Bengal, particularly Calcutta, influenced the interaction between European missionaries and indigenous populations, setting the stage for a unique ecclesiastical evolution in the Santal context.
6) Pargana:
Pargana refers to the administrative divisions under which Santal communities were organized. The term is essential in understanding the local governance structure and how it intersected with colonial rule, impacting the missionaries' methodologies and relationships with local leaders.
7) Calcutta:
Calcutta, as the capital of Bengal, symbolizes the intellectual and reformist movements influencing the missionaries. The city's contemporary debates among reformers shaped the missionaries' ideologies and their strategies to introduce Christianity among the Santal people.
8) Bengali:
Bengali refers to the cultural and linguistic group that the missionaries interacted with while working among the Santals. The complex dynamics between Bengali elites and the Santal community illustrate the broader social hierarchies and the challenges faced by the missionaries in their evangelization efforts.
9) Caste:
Caste plays a critical role in the context of Indian society and was an aspect that the missionaries dealt with as they sought to convert the Santal, who were outside the traditional caste system. The missionaries' views on caste influenced their approach to evangelism and social reform.
10) Language:
Language is significant as it was a fundamental element for the missionaries in translating Christian texts and engaging with the Santal people. Skrefsrud’s work on the Santal language underscored the importance of effective communication in preaching and preserving the Santal culture.
11) Death:
Death is an important concept within the Santal belief system, and the approach to afterlife concepts was a critical point of discussion between the missionaries and the Santal converts, reflecting on how Christianity could coexist with indigenous beliefs about life and death.
12) Pari:
[see source text or glossary: #Pari#]
13) Deity (Deities):
The Santal deities, or bonga, were central to traditional Santal spirituality, and the missionaries sought to diminish their influence while promoting Christianity. The missionaries' critiques targeted these deities, indicating the clash between indigenous belief and the new Christian faith.
14) Hundred:
[see source text or glossary: #Hundred#]
15) Pakan:
Pagan connections in the Santal converts' practices highlighted the inherently syncretic nature of their religious life. Missionaries attempted to convert pagans while respecting indigenous traditions, thus challenging traditional notions of conversion in a complex cultural milieu.
16) Theology:
The theology introduced by the missionaries aimed to reconcile traditional Santal beliefs with Lutheran orthodoxy, yet they faced challenges in maintaining a truly national church reflective of Santal cultural attributes as they adopted certain Western theological frameworks.
17) Child (Children):
Child represents the next generation within the Santal community, essential for the sustainability of cultural traditions as missionaries focused on educational initiatives aimed at instilling Christian values from an early age.
18) Freedom:
The notion of freedom is profound in the context of the Santal church, representing both religious freedoms advocated by the missionaries and the desire of the Santals to maintain autonomy over their cultural practices despite external influences.
19) Priest:
The role of the priest within the emerging Santal church reflected not just a religious function but also a position of leadership as the community navigated its identity in the colonial context. The indigenous leadership began to take shape, creating a bridge between Santal customs and Christian practices.
20) Prison:
Prison was a significant part of the missionary narrative, particularly for Skrefsrud, whose incarceration turned into a moment of spiritual awakening. This experience influenced his evangelistic efforts among the Santal population in India.
21) Future:
The future of the Santal church depended heavily on the integration of Santal identity into Christian practices and the sustainability of their newly formed beliefs amidst various external pressures. The missionaries envisioned a robust community that would continue to grow and evolve.
22) Faith:
Faith was at the core of the missionaries' project, aiming to instill Christian belief within the Santal community while finding ways to relate to their existing spiritual frameworks, thereby creating a unique hybrid of faith practices.
23) Yogi (Yogin):
Yogis and their associated beliefs influenced the spiritual context in which the Santals lived. The missionaries sought to navigate these regional religious practices while emphasizing the distinctiveness of Christian faith against the backdrop of Indian spirituality.
24) Lead:
Lead positions within the emerging Santal church were increasingly taken by indigenous leaders, symbolizing the transition from foreign missionary dominance to localized governance reflective of the community's cultural heritage. This shift was crucial for community acceptance.
25) Grammar:
Grammar, particularly of the Santal language, was a focus for missionary Skrefsrud, who aimed to document and preserve the language as part of the church's educational efforts. This linguistic work was integral to effective communication and teaching among the converts.
26) Family:
Family bonds within the Santal community were significant in maintaining cultural continuity amid the changes caused by missionary influence. The missionaries often addressed family structures when promoting Christian values and practices.
27) Nature:
Nature was foundational to the Santal worldview, influencing everyday life and spiritual beliefs. The missionaries sought to respect this connection while guiding the Santals toward a Christian interpretation of their existence in relation to the natural world.
28) Indian:
[see source text or glossary: #Indian#]
29) Indigo:
Indigo farming represented a colonial economic practice that affected the Santal community, impacting their traditional livelihoods. The missionaries' interactions with the indigo trade reflected the broader tensions between colonialism, economy, and indigenous rights.
30) Delhi:
[see source text or glossary: #Delhi#]
31) Image:
The image of missionaries evolved as they adapted to the Santal cultural context. Their interactions sought to build a relatable persona that resonated with the Santals, fostering trust while also projecting their Christian identity into Santal communities.
32) Literature:
Literature related to the Santal language was crucial for documentation and education as missionaries created written works to preserve and promote Santal heritage. This effort helped maintain a sense of identity amidst missionary teachings.
33) Marriage:
Marriage customs were both a point of focus and contention for the missionaries, as they sought to redefine these practices within a Christian framework while respecting Santal traditions regarding unions and family structures.
34) Debate:
Debate on philosophical and theological grounds influenced the missionaries’ strategies. The discussions surrounding cultural expectations and religious practices illustrated the struggle for identity and adaptation in the Santal church's development.
35) Famine:
Famine influenced the dynamics between the missionaries and Santal communities. The natural disaster served as a moment where religious conversion seemed appealing, prompting discussions around faith in times of crisis and economic hardship.
36) Finger:
[see source text or glossary: #Finger#]
37) Desire:
Desire manifested in the aspirations of the Santal people to embrace a new religious identity while simultaneously holding onto their cultural roots, painting a complex portrait of their journey within a colonial context.
38) White:
The image of the 'White man' in the Santal narratives serves as a powerful symbol of colonial authority and religious influence, complicating the relationship between the Santals and the missionaries who sought to convert and empower them.
39) Woman (Women):
Women in Santal culture were integral to community resilience and continuity, and their involvement in the mission became crucial for enhancing the social fabric of the emerging Christian church. The missionaries recognized this influence as vital for their success.
40) Court:
[see source text or glossary: #Court#]
41) Human:
Human experiences of healing, suffering, and community transformed the missionaries’ approach as they attempted to articulate a faith that addressed the tangible realities faced by the Santal population. This connection to human experience shaped their theological outlook.
42) King:
The concept of a king might not be directly relevant, but symbolizes authority and governance within the broader narrative of colonial rule impacting the Santal mission and the implications for local leadership structures.
43) Dane (Dané):
Danish missionaries played a central role in the history of the Santal church, particularly Skrefsrud and Börresen, whose backgrounds shaped their understanding of faith and cultural adaptation in establishing church governance.
44) Book:
[see source text or glossary: #Book#]
45) Face (Facing, Faced):
[see source text or glossary: #Face#]
46) Consciousness:
The consciousness of the Santal community evolved through their interactions with missionary teachings, revealing a complex negotiation between their traditional beliefs and the new Christian faith being proposed.
47) Experience:
Experience encompasses the lived realities of the Santal people in response to both colonial pressures and missionary presence, shaping their understanding of faith and identity beyond mere doctrinal adherence.
48) Critique:
Critique of traditional practices and missionary intentions was apparent in Santal responses, indicating a dynamic relationship that challenged both the missionaries and Santal converts to reconsider their respective roles in the newly formed church.
49) Identity:
Identity was a prominent theme as the Santal community navigated their cultural and religious dimensions in the face of external pressures. The formation of the church aimed to reconcile Santal identity with Christian teachings, though challenges arose.
50) Manohar:
[see source text or glossary: #Manohar#]
51) Benares:
[see source text or glossary: #Benares#]
52) Alcohol:
Alcohol consumption among the Santal was a contentious issue, with missionaries labeling it detrimental to spiritual life. Missionaries sought to curtail such practices in order to facilitate the transformation toward a Christian lifestyle.
53) Victory:
[see source text or glossary: #Victory#]
54) Feeling:
Feeling refers to the emotional responses experienced by Santals encountering Christianity, revealing struggles and aspirations related to their faith journey amidst cultural representation. The connection between spiritual feeling and social cohesion was significant for the community.
55) Worship:
Worship practices reflected a blend of Santal traditions and Christian elements, showcasing the evolving spiritual landscape as the missionaries aimed to create a relevant form of worship that resonated authentically with the Santal people.
56) Rampur:
Rampur was essential as a significant area for missionary activity, representing the geographical spread of the church among the Santals while highlighting the challenges and successes experienced within this community.
57) Purity:
Purity became an important aspect of the Kherwar movement, with adherents rejecting pagan practices. This concern for purity illustrated the tensions between traditional Santal beliefs and the new Christian doctrines being introduced.
58) Gold (Golden):
[see source text or glossary: #Golden#]
59) Sidhu (Shidhu):
Sidhu, as a charismatic leader during the Santal rebellion, symbolizes the indigenous resistance against colonial authority, illustrating the struggle between Santal identity and the missionary influence that sought to transform their spiritual landscape.
60) Magic:
Magic was associated with traditional Santal practices, and missionaries like Skrefsrud often countered these beliefs, perceiving them as obstacles to their religious objectives. The intersection of magic and spirituality remains a critical exploration point in the Santal mission history.
61) Fight:
Fight reflects the struggles faced by the Santal community against colonial and missionary impositions, highlighting their quest for agency and identity within a tumultuous socio-political landscape.
62) Heart:
Heart signifies the emotional and spiritual core of the mission's objectives, aspiring to connect genuinely with the Santal community by allowing faith to resonate deeply with their experiences and feelings of belonging.
63) Dream (Dreaming):
Dream embodies the vision that missionaries like Skrefsrud had for an independent Santal church that respected indigenous traditions while introducing Christian beliefs, aiming for a harmonious blending of both worlds.
64) Kanhu:
Kanhu, as part of the leadership within the Santal rebellion, represents the connection between traditional leadership and the socio-religious transformations sought by the missionaries amidst a backdrop of resistance.
65) Guru:
Guru reflects the traditional Santal spiritual leadership role, which the missionaries navigated as they introduced a new form of religious authority that needed to interact with existing cultural structures.
66) Kali:
Kali is a figure of crucial cultural resonance within the Santal belief system, and the missionaries' efforts aimed to address and reframe recognition of this deity in the context of Christianity, reflecting complexities around conversion and cultural transformation.
67) Soul:
The concept of the soul was central to interactions amidst the conversion process, as both Santal and missionaries grappled with the implications on eternal fate and morality within the new religious paradigm.
68) Rice (Rce):
Rice played a significant role in Santal culture and gatherings, often associated with rituals and communal activities. The missionaries had to navigate these traditional symbols while introducing new Christian practices.
69) Fear:
Fear often characterized the responses of the Santal to changing spiritual landscapes, where the introduction of Christianity posed existential dilemmas against deeply held beliefs in their traditional deities.
70) Hell:
The concept of hell was important in the missionary discourse, as they redefined notions of punishment and redemption through a Christian lens, influencing the Santal perception of the afterlife and moral behavior.
71) Mind:
Mind signifies the cognitive transformations that occurred during the conversion process as Santal individuals reconciled their cultural identity with new Christian beliefs, highlighting psychological and spiritual journeys.
72) Hope:
Hope encapsulates the aspirations that the missionaries had for the Santal community to embrace Christianity while also representing the desires of the Santals for social and spiritual upliftment through these religious changes.
73) Supernatural power (Supernormal power, Magical power):
Supernatural power reflected in the belief systems of the Santal and the perceived influence of missionaries provided a backdrop for the evolving spiritual landscape as traditional healing practices interacted with Christian narratives.
74) Spiritual life:
Spiritual life embodies the essence of the intended transformation through missionary work, aiming to cultivate a vibrant Christian faith while respecting the existing Santal traditions and worldviews.
75) Religious duty:
Religious duty for the converts meant the obligation to practice Christianity while negotiating their traditional commitments, creating a complex interplay between old and new with regard to cultural and spiritual responsibilities.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 169]