Religious Anthropology of Maoism in Nepal
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Pour une anthropologie religieuse du maoïsme népalais / For a Religious Anthropology of Maoism in Nepal
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions” publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales”)
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Philippe Ramirez.
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly”)
Full text available for: Pour une anthropologie religieuse du maoïsme népalais / For a Religious Anthropology of Maoism in Nepal
Year: 1997
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
1) Introduction
The legalization of political parties in Nepal in 1990 and subsequent elections have highlighted the significant influence of various factions of the Communist Party of Nepal (CPN). Notably, the Unified Marxist-Leninist Party (UML) emerged as a major political force, leading the government for a brief period. This political transformation raises interesting questions regarding the coexistence of a self-identified atheistic and republican socialist movement within a predominantly Hindu monarchy and state religion. This article seeks to explore the anthropological dimensions of Nepalese Maoism, particularly its interaction with and positioning against the prevailing religious beliefs in Nepal.
2) Religion as a Tool of Authority
The relationship between Maoism and religion in Nepal highlights an important paradox: while Maoism is fundamentally rooted in materialism and atheism, it does not entirely reject religion. Instead, the Maoists reinterpret the role of religion, viewing it as an instrument of the ruling class used to divert and control the populace. This perspective allows the Maoists to claim that they are not against religion per se, but rather against its exploitation by the feudal elite, thereby presenting Maoism as a potential vehicle for both revolutionary change and the preservation of societal harmony.
3) Tolerance and Political Strategy
The current political maneuvers of Maoist leaders illustrate an ambiguous stance towards religion. Despite holding a foundational position against exploitative practices linked to religion, Maoist narratives often incorporate traditional values of tolerance that resonate with the general Nepalese populace. During the governmental crisis, for example, prominent Maoist figures expressed respect for religious beliefs, seeking to align their revolutionary agenda with long-standing cultural attitudes towards coexistence in a multi-religious society. This indicates a pragmatic adaptation of their ideology to maintain political legitimacy.
4) Historical Roots and National Identity
Maoists in Nepal argue for a revolutionary return to an idealized past before the establishment of the monarchy and caste system, identifying the current problems of society as outcomes of historical corruption. This narrative reflects a broader quest for national identity, as the Maoists aim to construct a cohesive worldview that reconciles the critique of existing structures with the call for a revival of traditional values. By framing the crisis within a historical context, Maoism positions itself not only as a revolutionary force but also as a protector of national heritage.
5) Moral and Ethical Concerns
The Maoist discourse also engages with ethical issues concerning societal behavior, particularly issues that affect women's rights and social norms. While advocating for the rights of women and condemning practices such as polygamy and exploitation, the Maoists align themselves with traditional claims of moral superiority over other political factions. Their stance on these matters reflects a simultaneous push for progressive reform and a return to traditional ethical standards, suggesting a complex interplay of modernity and tradition within their ideology.
6) Conclusion
In summary, the evolution of Nepalese Maoism demonstrates a nuanced relationship with religion and traditional values. While rooted in Marxist principles, local adaptations allow it to transcend a straightforward dismissal of religion. Instead, Maoism in Nepal seeks to inhabit a middle ground where it can critique existing religious and monarchic structures while simultaneously appealing to the deep-seated cultural values of tolerance and historical identity. This dual approach enhances its relevance within the contemporary political landscape, offering a coherent and compelling narrative that addresses the contemporary challenges faced by Nepali society.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What historical events shaped the rise of Maoism in Nepal?
The legalization of political parties in 1990 and subsequent elections established Maoism's prominence, allowing it to become a significant political force within the framework of Nepal's existing monarchy and religious landscape.
How do Nepalese Maoists view the relationship between religion and politics?
Nepalese Maoists often reinterpret Marxist views, suggesting that religion is not entirely opposed to their ideology. They argue for a revolutionary society that acknowledges religious values while critiquing the instrumentalization of religion by the state.
What is the stance of Nepalese Maoists on traditional religions?
Nepalese Maoists do not outright reject traditional religions. Instead, they highlight the need to liberate people from religious exploitation while recognizing the potential for religion to inspire social unity and humanistic values.
How do Maoists portray the concept of martyrdom in their movement?
Martyrdom holds significant importance in Nepalese Maoism, serving as a symbol of sacrifice for social justice and revolution. The celebration of martyrs embodies an ideological connection between historical struggles and contemporary goals.
What criticisms do Maoists express towards existing social hierarchies?
Maoists argue that existing caste systems represent a corruption of an originally egalitarian society. They advocate for gradual reform to establish equality while refraining from outright destruction of caste identities.
What are the Maoist views on women's rights and gender relations?
Maoists claim to support equal rights for women and oppose traditional gender discrimination. They advocate against practices like polygamy and child marriages, while pushing for moral reforms reflective of their ideological commitments.
What role does nationalism play in Maoist ideology in Nepal?
Maoism in Nepal intertwines nationalism with revolutionary goals, promoting a vision that includes a critique of traditional power structures, along with reasserting national identity against perceived external influences and historical injustices.
How do Nepalese Maoists reconcile their ideology with national identity?
Nepalese Maoists aim to create a coherent worldview that balances criticism of tradition with national identity, advocating for a return to an idealized golden age while addressing contemporary socio-political challenges.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “Religious Anthropology of Maoism in Nepal”. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) Religion:
Religion plays a crucial role in the dynamics of Nepali society, where various movements navigate the complexities of religious beliefs, particularly in a context dominated by Hinduism. The integration of religion into Maoist ideology reflects a nuanced approach to belief systems within a society that does not easily separate spiritual from political realms.
2) Nepal:
Nepal serves as the backdrop for the discussion of Maoism and its interactions with existing societal structures like the monarchy and caste system. The revolutionary movements in Nepal seek to redefine the identity of the nation while addressing the historical and cultural legacies of oppression.
3) Nepali:
The term Nepali encompasses the cultural, political, and social identity of the people of Nepal, highlighting their struggles, adaptations, and inherent contradictions in a rapidly changing political landscape, especially as they confront ideologies like Maoism.
4) Monarchy:
The monarchy in Nepal, particularly the Shah lineage, represents a historic power structure that Maoists challenge while simultaneously navigating its influences. The relationship between the King and religion reflects deep-seated traditions that complicate the revolutionary discourse.
5) Hinduism:
Hinduism is the predominant religion in Nepal and significantly influences the political and social fabric, shaping both public sentiment and the rhetoric used by various parties, including the Maoists, who attempt to reconcile communist ideology with traditional beliefs.
6) King:
The King, as both a political and cultural figure, remains central to the identity of Nepal, influencing both historical narratives and contemporary politics. The role of the King is often criticized by Maoists, who view the monarchy as a perpetuator of class inequalities.
7) Caste:
The caste system deeply intertwines with Nepali society, presenting a challenge for revolutionary movements. Maoists critique the existing hierarchy, aiming to promote social equality while historically contextualizing the emergence of castes as a reaction against feudalism.
8) Woman (Women):
The female experience in Nepali society is a pivotal issue for Maoists as they advocate for feminist principles alongside their anti-feudal agenda, addressing the dual oppressions faced by women.
9) Indian:
The influence of Indian political dynamics significantly shapes Nepalese Maoism, as many Nepali communists draw ideological inspiration from Indian parties. The regional context complicates the relationship between Nepali and Indian identity frameworks within the leftist movements.
10) Blood:
Blood as a symbol recurs throughout Nepali Maoist discourse, often related to martyrdom and sacrifice. The concept of blood connects to ideas of struggle, solidarity, and the historical lineage of revolutionary heroes in the context of ongoing political conflict.
11) Pushpa (Puspa):
Pushpa Lal Shrestha, a significant figure in the history of Nepali communism, articulated early positions regarding the relationship between religion and politics. His legacy continues to influence contemporary ideologies surrounding the role of communism in Nepal.
12) Mohan:
Man Mohan Adhikari, as a leader, exemplifies the navigation of traditional politics within a modern Maoist framework. His remarks and policies reflect attempts to synthesize communist principles with the prevailing norms of Nepali society.
13) Adhikarin (Adhikari):
The surname Adhikari is historically associated with leaders within Nepal's communist movement. Figures like Man Mohan Adhikari illustrate the complexities of leadership in balancing revolutionary goals with cultural respect for existing systems.
14) India:
The Indian context serves as a framework for understanding the evolution of communist ideologies within Nepal. The shared history, cultural exchanges, and political influences all contribute to the Nepali Maoist narrative.
15) Minister:
The role of ministers, especially in the UML government, reveals the interplay of revolutionary ideals with the realities of governance. Their participation in religious ceremonies and traditional events underscores the tension between secularism and the pervasive influence of religion.
16) Brahmin:
The caste of Brahmins plays a significant role in the sociopolitical landscape of Nepal, where members often hold influential positions in both politics and religion. The Maoist critiques reveal the layered historical context of Brahmin dominance and the calls for reform.
17) Philosophy:
The philosophical underpinnings of Nepali Maoism contradict classical materialist discourse, integrating traditional and modern worldviews. The resulting ideology reflects diverse influences that shape the revolutionary narrative amidst a predominantly religious society.
18) Revolution:
Revolution serves as a guiding principle for Maoist leaders in Nepal, who seek drastic social changes through the overthrow of the existing monarchy and class structures. It embodies promises of liberation from historical injustices while also engaging deeply with national identity.
19) Identity:
Identity in Nepal is multifaceted, influenced by caste, religion, and political ideology. Maoism attempts to reshape national identity by critiquing traditional structures while promoting a vision of a more equitable society.
20) Materialism (Materialist):
Materialism, as a philosophical standpoint, faces reinterpretation within Nepali Maoism, which seeks to connect with cultural and historical realities while proposing a vision for societal transformation.
21) Marriage:
Marriage in Nepal is deeply intertwined with cultural and religious norms, often placing women in subordinate roles. Maoists criticize traditional views on marriage as part of their broader strategy to promote gender equality and women’s rights.
22) Critique:
Critique within Maoist discourse focuses on both historical injustices and the current political climate in Nepal, challenging traditional practices, the monarchy, and the established caste system while striving for a revolutionary transformation.
23) Nature:
[see source text or glossary: #Nature#]
24) Padma:
Padma Ratna Tuladhar, as a UML minister, represents the complexities of communist participation in a traditional religious society. His actions and statements illustrate the ongoing negotiations between progressive politics and established religious norms.
25) Ratna:
[see source text or glossary: #Ratna#]
26) Fight:
The fight against existing structures is central to the Maoist agenda, representing a broader struggle for social justice and equality in Nepal. This fight often manifests in both political action and grassroots mobilization.
27) Rana:
The Rana regime is historically significant in Nepal's political discourse, often critiqued by Maoists who view it as a period of feudal oppression. Understanding the Ranas provides context for the revolutionary narratives that seek to transform Nepali society.
28) Repression:
Repression under the monarchical systems, particularly during the Panchayat era, serves as a rallying point for Maoist movements. Their discourse seeks to address past and present injustices while promoting a revolutionary path forward.
29) Evolution:
[see source text or glossary: #Evolution#]
30) Salvation:
Salvation in the context of Nepali Maoism refers to liberation from exploitation and the realization of social harmony. It embodies the hope for a transformed society in which historical inequalities are addressed.
31) Sentiment:
[see source text or glossary: #Sentiment#]
32) Existence:
[see source text or glossary: #Existence#]
33) Bhandari (Bhamdari):
Madan Bhandari, as a significant leader within the UML, reflects the continuity of Maoist discourse and its adaptation to contemporary political challenges in Nepal. His legacy remains influential in the ideological development of the party.
34) Doctrine:
The doctrine of Maoism in Nepal intertwines various ideological elements, merging classic Marxist philosophy with local realities. This synthesis of ideas forms the basis of the revolutionary agenda being pursued by various factions.
35) Politics:
The political landscape in Nepal is characterized by a complex interplay of ideology, identity, and historical legacy. Maoism attempts to navigate this landscape while promoting a vision of societal transformation.
36) Freedom:
Freedom is a central theme in the Nepali revolutionary discourse, representing liberation from oppression and the establishment of a just society. The meaning of freedom evolves in response to historical challenges faced by the nation.
37) Violent:
Violent means of achieving revolutionary goals can be seen in the practices of various Maoist factions. These strategies reflect diverse approaches to conflict within the broader context of Nepali politics.
38) Debate:
The ongoing debate surrounding the role of religion in Nepali society reflects the significant tensions between traditional beliefs and emerging ideologies. This debate plays a crucial role in shaping the future of political movements.
39) Temple:
The existence of temples is intertwined with the cultural identity and religious practices in Nepal, particularly in the context of Hinduism. Maoists address the role of temples through their critique of existing power structures.
40) Death:
Death, particularly in the context of martyrdom, takes on significant symbolic meanings within Nepali Maoism. The remembrance of martyrs serves as a source of inspiration and unity in the struggle for social justice.
41) Peace:
[see source text or glossary: #Peace#]
42) Faith:
Faith remains a vital component of Nepali society, influencing both personal and political identities. The Maoist perspective often engages with concepts of faith while promoting an ideology aimed at societal transformation.
43) Underground:
The underground movements represent the clandestine aspects of Nepalese political struggles, particularly during times of repression. These movements contribute to the legacy and continuity of revolutionary ideology.
44) Experience:
[see source text or glossary: #Experience#]
45) Education:
Education is viewed as a key instrument for social change within the political philosophies of Nepali Maoists. It serves as a foundation for empowering individuals and creating an informed citizenry.
46) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
[see source text or glossary: #Buddhism#]
47) Village:
Villages in Nepal serve as crucial sites for the dissemination of revolutionary ideas and practices. The rural population's experiences shape Maoist strategies and influence their approach to socio-political issues.
48) Priest:
Priests represent the traditional religious authority within Nepali society. Their role and influence are challenged by Maoist ideologies that seek to critique and redefine power dynamics related to religion.
49) Gold (Golden):
The concept of a golden age is frequently invoked by Maoists as they evoke a nostalgic vision for pre-monarcal and caste Nepal. This idea represents aspirations for a restored social harmony and a return to original virtues.
50) China:
China's revolutionary history serves as an influential model for Nepali Maoists, offering both ideological inspiration and practical examples of communist governance. The connection to China shapes the theories and strategies pursued by Nepali political movements.
51) Power:
Political power in Nepal is contested across various factions, with Maoists seeking to redefine the distribution of power within society. The struggle for power inherently involves negotiations with existing institutions like the monarchy.
52) Crime:
Crime, particularly in the context of systemic oppression, is critiqued within Maoist narratives. The discourse frames existing crimes as manifestations of feudal and capitalist exploitation, thus warranting revolutionary action.
53) Human:
Human rights issues are central to the Maoist agenda, which seeks to address the exploitation and suffering of marginalized groups. The emphasis on human dignity shapes their rhetoric and political initiatives.
54) Sah:
The Shah dynasty remains a pivotal reference point in discussions of Nepali politics and monarchy. Maoists often critique the historical injustices associated with the Shah kings while navigating their continued influence.
55) Fear:
Fear, especially among the marginalized and oppressed, is a recurring theme in Maoist discourse. It serves as both a motivator for revolutionary action and a tool used by ruling powers to maintain control.
56) Celebration:
Celebration of revolutionary figures and events plays a crucial role in Maoist identity formation. Recognizing and memorializing past struggles fosters a sense of community and continuity in the movement.
57) Discussion:
[see source text or glossary: #Discussion#]
58) Literature:
Literature serves as both a vehicle for ideological dissemination and a form of resistance within the Nepali Maoist discourse. It shapes the narratives surrounding revolution, identity, and social justice.
59) Prostitute:
The discussion of prostitutes highlights issues of gender and exploitation within Nepali society. Maoist critiques often address the intersection of traditional practices and modern societal changes concerning women's rights.
60) Kathmandu:
Kathmandu, as the capital city, is central to political activism and the representation of revolutionary ideas. The dynamics of urban spaces significantly influence the strategies employed by Maoist movements.
61) Greatness:
The concept of greatness is leveraged in revolutionary rhetoric to evoke national pride and historical identity. It reflects aspirations for a transformed society aligned with the ideals of equality and social responsibility.
62) Mahendra (Mahemdra, Maha-indra):
King Mahendra is a historical figure often referenced in discussions about the monarchical past, shaping perspectives on governance and societal development. Maoists critique his reign for suppressing democracy.
63) Rhetoric (Rhetorical):
Rhetoric serves as a tool for political mobilization among Nepali Maoists. It shapes ideologies and communicates revolutionary goals to the populace, blending promises of change with calls for unity.
64) Alcohol:
The stance on alcohol aligns with broader moral discussions within the Maoist movement, reflecting calls for societal reform and the promotion of traditional values in opposition to perceived corrupt modernity.
65) Victory:
Victory in the context of Maoism symbolizes not only triumph over existing power structures but also the realization of an egalitarian society. The promise of victory underlies the revolutionary narrative.
66) Eternal:
[see source text or glossary: #Eternal#]
67) Purana:
The concept of Purana, as historical texts within Hindu and Buddhist traditions, informs the Maoist attempts to redefine history in a way that serves their revolutionary narrative. These texts are often invoked in ideological discussions.
68) Buddha:
The figure of Buddha embodies teachings of peace and compassion, which are occasionally referenced within Maoist discourses to illustrate the potential for social harmony and moral integrity in society.
69) Dharma:
Dharma, representing moral and ethical duties, intersects with Maoist discourses as they offer critiques of traditional ethics while promoting a revolutionary vision that seeks to align individual rights with communal responsibilities.
70) Wealth:
Wealth is a central concern of the Maoist critique of capitalism and feudalism, with the movement advocating for a redistribution of resources. This reflects the ongoing struggles faced by marginalized communities in Nepal.
71) Family:
Family structures are often examined within the Maoist framework, highlighting the need for revolutionary change to promote equality not only in the public sphere but also within familial relations.
72) Police:
The police are often depicted as instruments of repression in Maoist discourse, symbolizing the broader systemic injustices faced by the oppressed. Their role is critiqued as guardians of state interests over human rights.
73) Animal:
The treatment of animals, like the cow in Hinduism, exemplifies the intersection of cultural practices with politics in Nepal. This issue is debated among various parties, reflecting larger questions of identity and national sentiment.
74) Prison:
The prison serves as a metaphor for the oppression encountered within Nepali society under monarchical rule. Maoists often utilize the imagery of prison to evoke narratives of resistance and struggle for freedom.
75) Secret (Secrecy, Secretly):
The notion of secret activities resonates throughout Nepali political landscapes, where clandestine operations are viewed as necessary by various factions for advancing revolutionary goals in the face of oppressive regimes.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 197]