(Re)Conversions to Hinduism (1885-1990): Tradition's Politicization
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Les (Re)conversions à l'hindouisme (1885-1990) : politisation et diffusion d'une «invention» de la tradition / (Re)conversions to Hinduism (1885-1990) : The Politisation and the Diffusion of an 'Invention ' of Tradition
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions” publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales”)
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Christophe Jaffrelot
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly”)
Full text available for: Les (Re)conversions à l'hindouisme (1885-1990) : politisation et diffusion d'une «invention» de la tradition / (Re)conversions to Hinduism (1885-1990) : The Politisation and the Diffusion of an 'Invention ' of Tradition
Year: 1994
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
1) Introduction
The dynamics of conversion and reconversion to Hinduism from 1885 to 1990 reflect a complex interplay of ritual practices, social politics, and inter-religious relations in India. This summary explores key themes and concepts, including the historical context of conversions, the introduction of proselytism by Hindu reform movements, the response to the threat of Muslim and Christian missions, and the evolving nature of reconversion practices within the framework of Hindu social structure and identity.
2) The Concept of Suddhi
One significant concept discussed is "suddhi," a procedure predominantly initiated by the Arya Samaj and subsequently adopted by the Hindu Mahasabha. Suddhi refers to a method of purification and reconversion aimed at integrating individuals who had converted to Islam or Christianity back into Hinduism. While rooted in traditional purification rituals, the Arya Samaj adapted this practice by incorporating elements of proselytism found in Christian and Muslim traditions. This effort was primarily defensive, aimed at countering the declining population of Hindus as they faced increased conversions, especially among the lower castes and untouchables.
3) Orthodox Opposition and the Role of Politics
The orthodox Hindu community exhibited significant opposition to the notion of suddhi, viewing it as a deviation from traditional caste norms and purity standards. The support for the reconciliation efforts was situational, primarily thriving only when the Hindu identity was perceived to be threatened. This political context gave rise to a communal approach to identity and survival amidst the dual challenges posed by missionary activities and demographic changes in Indian society. As the political landscape shifted in the late 1920s, the institutional backing for the suddhi movement waned, leading to its decline.
4) Post-Independence and Freedom to Propagate
In the aftermath of India's independence, the Constitution recognized the freedom to propagate religion, thereby legitimizing conversion activities. However, this freedom became a point of contention, particularly concerning the activity of Christian missionaries. While the Hindu nationalist movements, particularly the Hindu Mahasabha, sought to restrict conversions to Islam and Christianity, they paradoxically accepted conversions to Sikhism and Buddhism, viewing them as inherently Indian religions. This selective opposition reveals a nuanced attitude within the nationalist discourse surrounding religious identity.
5) The Resurgence of Hindu Nationalism
The 1980s marked a renewed vigor in Hindu nationalism, catalyzed by the conversion of certain groups of untouchables to Islam in Tamil Nadu. This period saw the emergence of more simplified and politicized practices of reconversion, diverging from traditional suddhi rituals. The newfound acceptance of reconversions by orthodox religious leaders underscores a significant shift in Hindu identity politics, wherein the emphasis transitioned from maintaining caste purity to fostering a collective Hindu national identity against perceived external threats.
6) The Normalization of Reconversion Practices
Emerging from the socio-political turmoil of the 1980s, the reconversion practices became more routine and akin to those seen within other religions. The ritual simplified, focusing less on caste structures and more on community solidarity and national identity. The historical baggage of caste distinctions began to erode, leading towards a greater acceptance of converting or reconverting individuals, even if easing into a cohesive community of believers remained a challenge.
7) Conclusion
The evolution of conversion and reconversion practices within Hinduism from 1885 to 1990 reveals a society grappling with internal divisions marked by caste dynamics and external religious influences. The historical development of suddhi reflects both attempts to resist religious change and adapting to socio-political realities. Ultimately, this complex interplay underscores the struggle for a unified Hindu identity amid demographic and cultural challenges, a theme that continues to resonate in contemporary India.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What is the main focus of Christophe Jaffrelot's article on Hindu conversions?
The article discusses the historical (re)conversions to Hinduism from 1885 to 1990, focusing on the Arya Samaj and its impact on the Hindu community against the backdrop of societal and religious dynamics in India.
How does the concept of conversion differ in Hinduism compared to other religions?
In Hinduism, conversion often relates to caste affiliation and ritual purification rather than doctrinal adherence, making it complex due to the intertwined nature of social status and religious identity.
What role did the Arya Samaj play in Hindu reform movements?
Founded in 1875, the Arya Samaj aimed to reform Hindu society by eliminating idolatry and integrating lower castes, while adapting proselytizing techniques from Christianity and Islam to counter their influence.
What is 'suddhi' in the context of Hindu reconversions?
Suddhi refers to a purification process used to reconvert individuals, particularly those who converted to Islam or Christianity, allowing them to reintegrate into Hindu society through specific rituals.
How did political pressures influence Hindu conversion movements?
Political pressures, especially during the British colonial rule and later independence, heightened Hindu nationalistic sentiments, prompting organized efforts to counter religious conversions by Muslims and Christians.
What triggered a resurgence of conversions to Hinduism in the 1980s?
The 1980s saw a resurgence in Hindu (re)conversions due to the conversion of Dalits to Islam, prompting a nationalist response aimed at preserving Hindu identity through collective reconversion efforts.
How did the legal framework in India address conversions after independence?
Post-independence, the Indian Constitution acknowledged the freedom to propagate religion, allowing conversions while facing opposition from Hindu nationalists who viewed this as a threat to Hindu identity.
What are the implications of contemporary Hindu reconversion practices?
Contemporary reconversion practices reflect a shift towards simpler rituals focused on strengthening a collective Hindu identity, sometimes disregarding the original caste and purity considerations traditionally governing Hindu conversions.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “(Re)Conversions to Hinduism (1885-1990): Tradition's Politicization”. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) Arya:
The Arya Samaj, founded by Dayananda Saraswati in 1875, played a significant role in the reformation of Hindu practices, aiming to purify and strengthen Hinduism against the perceived threats from missionary influences. This socio-religious movement emphasized the back to the Vedic roots and sought to unite Hindus under the notion of Aryan purity.
2) Shuddhi (Suddhi):
Shuddhi, closely associated with Suddhi, refers to the specific purification rites advocated by the Arya Samaj for reconversion to Hinduism, emphasizing the re-establishment of social ties and community belonging.
3) Caste:
The caste system in India delineates social hierarchies and imposes strict norms regarding social interaction, including who can participate in rituals like initiation or purification. Within this structure, individuals categorized as 'Untouchable' face systemic exclusion, complicating their attempts at reintegration through processes like Suddhi.
4) Hinduism:
Hinduism is characterized by diverse beliefs and practices, rooted traditionally in the caste system, orthodoxy, and numerous sects. Movements like the Arya Samaj represent attempts to modernize and unify Hindu identities, challenging colonial perceptions and internal societal pressures.
5) Untouchable:
Untouchables, or Dalits, are communities historically marginalized in the Indian social hierarchy. The Arya Samaj and political leaders like Lajpat Rai advocated for their inclusion within Hindu society to prevent their conversion to other religions, notably Islam and Christianity.
6) India:
India, the historical and cultural backdrop for these religious transformations, is home to a multitude of religions and social systems, including the traditional practices of Hinduism. The tensions emerging from conversions within this diverse country often reflect broader societal dynamics.
7) Religion:
Religion in India embodies a complex interplay of belief systems where Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity vie for influence. The Arya Samaj utilized religious tenets to foster a sense of unity among Hindus while countering conversion attempts by faiths deemed external.
8) Punjab:
Punjab, a region pivotal in the emergence of the Arya Samaj, saw significant demographic changes due to conversions and proselytizing by various missionary groups. The reaction to these changes included the development of defensive movements like Suddhi to reconnect with families that had converted.
9) Indian:
The Indian identity is intricately tied to its religions, particularly driven by the socio-political narratives shaped by movements like the Arya Samaj. These interactions reflect a broader quest for recognition and unity in a multifaceted society.
10) Delhi:
[see source text or glossary: #Delhi#]
11) Maha-sabha (Mahasabha):
The Hindu Mahasabha emerged as a political and social movement aiming to unify Hindus and counteract the influence of other religions. It played a pivotal role in promoting the idea of reconversion as a means of preserving Hindu identity in the face of perceived threats.
12) Purification:
Purification rituals, including Suddhi, are intrinsic to Hindu practices, aimed at restoring individuals to a state of social acceptability. These are crucial for those reconverting to Hinduism from other faiths, reinforcing the caste hierarchy and traditional practices.
13) New Delhi:
[see source text or glossary: #New Delhi#]
14) Sabha:
Sabha, or assembly, is associated with organizations like the Arya Samaj and Hindu Mahasabha, representing structured community efforts to address issues like conversion and promoting Hindu unity against external influences.
15) Faith:
Faith in Hinduism is not simply a personal belief; it is deeply entwined with social systems, particularly the caste structure. The Arya Samaj sought to mobilize faith as a means of social reform and identity consolidation.
16) Initiation:
Initiation, as understood in the context of Hindu sects, parallels that of conversion within other religions. It often requires adherence to specific doctrines and can involve rituals that signify a profound change in one's religious standing, akin to the processes outlined by the Arya Samaj.
17) Evolution:
The evolution of Hindu practices, particularly regarding conversion and purification, highlights the adaptability of religion in response to socio-political pressures from both within and outside its traditional boundaries.
18) Madhya:
[see source text or glossary: #Madhya#]
19) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
Buddhist conversions pose less of a threat to Hindu nationalists as Buddhism is seen as an indigenous religion; however, the implications for Hindu identity still invite scrutiny.
20) Rajput:
Rajputs, a prominent warrior caste in India, have been seen as integral to Hindu identity. Movements like the Arya Samaj sought to incorporate individuals from various backgrounds, including those categorized under Rajput identities, into the broader Hindu fold.
21) Freedom:
[see source text or glossary: #Freedom#]
22) Vishva (Visva, Vishvasa):
Vishva, particularly in the context of the Vishva Hindu Parishad, refers to the global or universal aspect of Hindu identity that seeks to consolidate Hindus worldwide against perceived threats from other faiths.
23) Power:
Power dynamics play a vital role in the context of conversions and reconversions, with socio-political leverage influencing who can participate in rituals like Suddhi, as well as the response to missionary activities.
24) Spiritual:
The spiritual dimension of Hinduism is interwoven with rituals and organizational structures that dictate the acceptability of individuals returning to the faith, emphasizing the need for social re-integration through purification rites.
25) Brahmin:
Brahmins, as the priestly caste within Hinduism, wield considerable influence over religious practices, including those concerning initiation and purity. Their endorsement has been crucial to the success of movements like the Arya Samaj in championing practices such as Shuddhi.
26) Veda:
The Veda serves as the scriptural foundation of Hindu belief, influencing rituals, including those around initiation and purification that shape the understanding of conversion.
27) Svamin (Swami, Svami, Swamin):
Swami, a title often given to spiritual leaders in Hinduism, is associated with various reform movements including the Arya Samaj, representing the integration of personal enlightenment with broader community responsibilities.
28) Dimension:
[see source text or glossary: #Dimension#]
29) Malaviya (Mala-viya):
Malaviya, an influential figure in the Hindu Mahasabha, symbolized the movement's push towards creating an organized Hindu identity while being concerned with the impacts of conversions on the community's integrity.
30) Politics:
The intersection of politics and religion in India is particularly pronounced during discussions of conversion and reconversion, with movements using religious identities to mobilize support against perceived threats from other faiths.
31) Parishad (Parisad, Parisat, Parishat):
Parishad, meaning 'council', reflects collective actions taken by organizations such as the Vishva Hindu Parishad to advocate for Hindu unity and counteract efforts to convert Hindus to other faiths.
32) Worship:
Worship in Hinduism encompasses a variety of practices, where rituals play a central role in community life and where rituals like Suddhi can serve to re-establish communal ties for those returning to the faith.
33) Bombay:
[see source text or glossary: #Bombay#]
34) Purity:
Purity is a foundational concern within the caste system and Hindu orthodoxy. The Suddhi rituals aimed to restore purity to individuals returning to Hinduism, fundamentally reinforcing societal hierarchies.
35) Jana:
[see source text or glossary: #Jana#]
36) Amritsar:
Amritsar became a significant center for the Arya Samaj's activities, particularly for its efforts in initiating Suddhi rituals and targeting reconversion efforts against the backdrop of Punjabi demographics.
37) Identity:
Religious identity among Hindus is shaped by caste, community practices, and historical narratives. The Arya Samaj and organizations like the Hindu Mahasabha actively sought to define and protect this identity against external pressures.
38) Saffron:
The saffron color associated with Hindu nationalism has become a symbol of identity and unity, often featured in rituals and ceremonies that advocate for reconversion and Hindu pride.
39) Family:
Family structures in India play a significant role in religious practices, especially concerning the continuity of caste and religious identity, which can complicate individuals' conversions and reconversions.
40) Debate:
The debate surrounding conversions in India's political and social landscape reflects deep-seated anxieties regarding identity, tradition, and the preservation of Hindu beliefs amidst growing pressures from missionary activities.
41) Temple:
Hindu temples serve as focal points for worship and community life, where issues of purity and ritual often intersect with the broader concerns of reconversion and inclusion within Hindu society.
42) Ashrama (Asrama):
An ashram is a spiritual retreat or community, often associated with reform movements like the Arya Samaj, which aim to create inclusive spaces for initiation and education within Hinduism.
43) Pandita (Pandit):
Pandits, as scholarly religious figures, are crucial in performing rituals like Suddhi and upholding the orthodoxy within Hindu practices, often bridging traditional knowledge with contemporary reformist efforts.
44) Rupee:
[see source text or glossary: #Rupee#]
45) Shankaracarya (Shankara-acarya, Sankaracarya, Sankaracharya):
The Shankaracharya, as a prominent religious leader, influences Hindu orthodoxy and has historically engaged in discussions surrounding conversion and the preservation of traditional religious practices.
46) Renunciation:
Renunciation represents a significant step in Hindu spirituality, often leading individuals to pursue a life dedicated to higher spiritual goals, impacting the dynamics of faith and community engagement.
47) Environment:
[see source text or glossary: #Environment#]
48) Tamilnadu (Tamil-nadu):
Tamil Nadu has seen significant religious conversions, particularly among untouchable communities. This region illustrates the broader trends of reconversion and community realignment within Indian society.
49) Shankara (Sankara, Samkara, Sham-kara):
Shankara, a key figure in Hindu philosophy, laid foundational ideas that have shaped contemporary Hindu beliefs, particularly his approaches to conversion and the defense against competing religions like Buddhism.
50) Impurity:
Impurity within the caste system poses profound challenges for individuals seeking reconversion, as it serves as a barrier against full social acceptance unless addressed through specific rituals like Suddhi.
51) Network:
The network of social relations defined by caste influences individuals' acceptance within Hindu communities, affecting the dynamics of conversion, worship, and celebration of traditions.
52) Niyogin (Niyogi):
The Niyogi Report influenced state policies on conversions, shaping perceptions of missionary activities as threats to internal coherence and sovereignty within Indian society.
53) Speech:
Speeches delivered by political and religious figures often reflect the ongoing discourse surrounding conversion, aiming to rally support for initiatives designed to protect Hindu identity.
54) Tamil:
Tamil Nadu's unique social landscape is an important case study for understanding regional variations in religious conversion practices and their socio-cultural implications.
55) Nadu:
[see source text or glossary: #Nadu#]
56) Bhaj:
[see source text or glossary: #Bhaj#]
57) Pari:
[see source text or glossary: #Pari#]
58) Vedic sacrifice:
Vedic sacrifices form the ritualistic underpinning of Hindu worship, grounding the practices of Suddhi in ancient traditions while addressing contemporary concerns regarding purification and reconnection with faith.
59) Maharashtra (Maharastra, Maha-rashtra):
Maharashtra becomes relevant in the discussions of untouchable conversions, especially through figures like Ambedkar, who advocated for uplifting these communities from the caste system.
60) Recognition:
Recognition of individuals' rights to their religious beliefs has been a pivotal issue in the political landscape of India, influencing sentiments around conversion and community dynamics.
61) Literature:
Hindu literature and texts serve both as historical accounts and prescriptive guides for religious purity, social behavior, and the ongoing discussions concerning conversion and identity.
62) Kshatriya (Ksatriya):
Kshatriya communities, traditionally known as warriors, also figure into discussions around the caste system and conversion, as movements like the Arya Samaj aimed at uniting various castes under a common Hindu identity.
63) Rashtriya (Rastriya):
Rashtriya-oriented organizations promote the idea of a united Hindu identity, often emphasizing nationalism and purity in reaction to external religious influences and conversions.
64) Sacrifice:
Sacrifice in Hinduism reflects deep theological and social implications, especially when considering rituals aimed at purifying reconverted individuals to accept their place within the caste framework.
65) Pollution:
Pollution, especially ritual pollution, complicates the processes of conversion and reintegration for individuals attempting to return to Hinduism, as practices like Suddhi seek to address these barriers.
66) Obsession:
Obsession over maintaining numerical strength within the Hindu population influences reactions to conversions and spurs initiatives aimed at reversing the trend of religious conversions.
67) Calcutta:
[see source text or glossary: #Calcutta#]
68) Vanavasin (Vanavasi, Vanavashi, Vana-vasin):
Vanavasi groups, referring to communities identified as forest dwellers, have been significant targets for Hindu nationalist movements, aiming to reclaim these populations for Hinduism amidst the pressures of conversions to Christianity.
69) Doctrine:
The doctrine of Hinduism encompasses various beliefs and ritual practices, including the importance of caste and purity, which are central to the debates surrounding conversion and reconversion processes.
70) Merchant:
Merchant communities, often classified within the Vaishya caste, illustrate the complexities of conversion as socio-economic factors interplay with religious identity and communal acceptance.
71) Marriage:
Marriage customs within Hinduism reflect caste hierarchies, where inter-caste marriages can lead to significant societal repercussions, impacting attitudes towards reconversion and social acceptance.
72) External:
External influences, particularly from missionaries, are often at the center of conversion debates within Hindu communities, spurring organizations like the Arya Samaj to respond with their purification processes.
73) Pakistan:
The historical context of partition and the association of Islam with Pakistan introduces a layer of anxiety within Indian Hindu communities, complicating perceptions around conversion and religious identity.
74) Manohar:
Manohar's contributions to the constitutional discussions in India underscore the tensions between religious freedom and the concerns of Hindu identity amidst national politics.
75) Gayatri:
The Gayatri mantra, a significant Vedic hymn, symbolizes the spiritual and ritualistic aspects of Hindu worship, integral to the purification and initiation practices within the Hindu tradition.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 220]