The Rise of Proselytism in the Indian Subcontinent: An Overview
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: La Montée du prosélytisme dans le sous continent indien: Introduction/ The Rise of Proselytism in the Indian Sub Continent. An Introduction
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions” publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales”)
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Catherine Clémentin Ojha
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(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly”)
Full text available for: La Montée du prosélytisme dans le sous continent indien: Introduction/ The Rise of Proselytism in the Indian Sub Continent. An Introduction
Year: 1994
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
1) Introduction
The rise of proselytism in the Indian subcontinent is both a complex theoretical issue and a significant political concern. While proselytism is a core component of Christianity, it has traditionally been less prominent in Hinduism and Islam. Historically considered a non-missionary faith, Hinduism has developed a proselytizing aspect through its sectarian traditions. Similarly, Islam, which has often been portrayed as universally zealous in its mission, has shown significant limitations in its proselytizing endeavors, especially among Sunni groups. This paper explores how Christianity's historical spread since the 16th century, particularly during British colonization, prompted both defensive and imitative reactions from Hindus and Muslims.
2) Traditional Perspectives on Proselytism
#### The Hindu Perspective
Traditionally, Hinduism's approach to proselytism is characterized by ambivalence. Lacking a clear definition of proselytism, Hinduism does not share the typical missionary zeal found in Christianity and Islam. Although it has sectarian traditions, these do not operate on the principles of universal conversion; rather, they engage in forms of integration through social systems like caste. While Hindu reform movements, such as the Arya Samaj, have adopted a counter-proselytizing stance in reaction to Christian missions, the broader Hindu community does not view conversion as a central focus of its tradition.
3) The Islamic Perspective
#### The Sunni and Shiite Distinction
Islam's perceived proselytism has predominantly been associated with Shiite sects, while the Sunni majority historically maintained a more passive stance. The traditional Sunni understanding, as articulated by early Muslim scholars, placed less emphasis on converting non-Muslims, focusing instead on maintaining political dominance and social order. Notable exceptions exist within the Ahmadiyya and Ismaili communities, which actively pursue missionary activities. This distinction underlines the variability in proselytizing attitudes among different Islamic sects, highlighting that Islam's historical narrative in South Asia does not uniformly reflect a strong missionary approach.
4) Reactions to Colonialism
#### Defensive and Counter-Protelytism
The spread of Christianity, alongside the British colonial presence, incited both defensive and counter-proselytizing reactions among Hindus and Muslims. Initially, communities engaged in apologetic defense through debates and the publication of texts aimed at upholding their religious identities. Over time, this evolved into more organized efforts to counteract Christian proselytism, leading to the establishment of movements that sought to reaffirm and reintegrate those who had converted to Christianity or Islam back into Hinduism. Such counter-proselytizing movements have often utilized the methods and strategies reminiscent of Christian missions, signaling a significant shift in traditional Hindu responses to religious competition.
5) Impacts of New Religious Dynamics
#### Political Context and Modern Repercussions
The conflicts and competitive dynamics between religious communities in India, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, have led to the emergence of heightened religious tensions. This rivalry has fostered an increase in organized missionary efforts among both Hindus and Muslims. The socio-political landscape has influenced religious identities, driving communities to engage more aggressively in proselytizing activities. Campaigns for religious reversion, such as the Hindu “suddhi” movement for reconversion, signal an evolving understanding of religious belonging and community amidst political crises, illustrating how religion and politics interweave.
6) Conclusion
The analysis of proselytism in India reveals a multifaceted interaction between religion and broader socio-political contexts. The historically limited perspectives of Hinduism and Islam regarding proselytism have evolved due to external pressures, such as colonialism and modernization, leading to redefined religious strategies. These shifts underline the significance of context in understanding religious dynamics. Consequently, as Hindu and Muslim communities navigate modern challenges, the implications of their past responses to proselytism continue to resonate, shaping their future interactions and identities in an increasingly pluralistic society.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What historical factors influenced proselytism in the Indian subcontinent?
The intrusion of Christianity and British colonialism prompted defensive reactions and counter-proselytism strategies among Hindus and Muslims, leading to the emergence of pro-conversion movements.
How does Hinduism traditionally view proselytism?
Hinduism is traditionally seen as a non-missionary religion, although sectarian traditions within it have occasionally engaged in proselytism, primarily focused on integrating marginalized groups.
What role did British colonial policy play in religious conversions?
British colonial policies initially restricted proselytism but later allowed missionary activities, prompting Hindu and Muslim responses in the form of organized movements for conversion and reconversion.
What characterizes the proselytism of Islam in India?
Islam, particularly through certain sects like the Ahmadiyya and the Tablighi Jama'at, showed varying levels of proselytism, with traditional Sunni Islam focusing less on conversion efforts.
What significant event in 1981 affected Hindu-Muslim relations in India?
The mass conversion of around 3,000 untouchables to Islam in Meenakshipuram intensified Hindu feelings of vulnerability and led to increased counter-proselytism efforts within the Hindu community.
How do modern Hindu and Muslim organizations approach proselytism?
Modern organizations employ strategies akin to Christian missionary methods, focusing on both religious conversion and the defense of their respective faith communities in the face of external pressures.
What is the impact of proselytism on Indian religious conflicts?
The emergence of organized proselytism among Hindu and Muslim communities has increasingly influenced religious tensions, often exacerbating communal rivalries and identity conflicts over the past century.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “The Rise of Proselytism in the Indian Subcontinent: An Overview”. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) India:
India is a subcontinent where various religions, including Hinduism and Islam, have coexisted and interacted. This region has witnessed significant historical events, such as the British conquest, which influenced its social fabric and the dynamics of proselytism within religions.
2) Hinduism:
Hinduism, a major religion in India, does not traditionally engage in proselytism like Christianity does. Instead, it encompasses multiple paths to salvation and is characterized by a complex social structure, including the caste system. Its nature is largely defined by a lack of a singular doctrine or proselytic mission.
3) Religion:
Religion in the context of India is diverse, comprising Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and others. Each religion has its own unique practices and doctrines, affecting social relations, identity, and politics within the Indian subcontinent. The rise of proselytism challenges traditional understandings of religion.
4) Caste:
Caste is a fundamental aspect of Hindu social structure, determining an individual's social status and religious duties. The caste system plays a crucial role in conversion processes, as the purity and pollution associated with different castes influence one's ability to change religious affiliations.
5) Indian:
Indian refers to the people and culture originating from India, encompassing a multitude of languages, traditions, and religions. The Indian identity has been shaped by historical interactions among diverse communities, particularly in response to colonization and global influences on local faith practices.
6) Dharma:
Dharma is a pivotal Hindu concept representing duty, law, and cosmic order. It encompasses moral and ethical guidelines that define an individual's responsibilities within society, particularly in the context of the caste system, and is a key element of Hindu identity and teaching.
7) Jama:
[see source text or glossary: #Jama#]
8) Pari:
[see source text or glossary: #Pari#]
9) Delhi:
Delhi, the capital city of India, has been a historical center of power and culture. It has seen the rise and fall of various empires, including the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, influencing the religious and social dynamics of Hinduism and Islam.
10) Shuddhi (Suddhi):
Shuddhi, as outlined in Hinduism, pertains to the process of purification or reintegration into the faith. This concept not only plays a role in individual conversions but also in community responses to external religious influences.
11) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
Buddhist practices, unlike Hinduism, possess a clear proselytizing tradition. The historical spread of Buddhism exemplifies the dynamics of conversion and its philosophical approach towards achieving enlightenment and salvation.
12) Arya:
Arya refers to the Arya Samaj, a reform movement in Hinduism founded to oppose Christian proselytism. Emerging in the 19th century, it sought to redefine and strengthen Hindu identity through literature, promotion of dharma, and an organized approach to Hinduism.
13) Manohar:
[see source text or glossary: #Manohar#]
14) Nature:
In the context of religion, nature refers to the innate characteristics and behaviors of different faiths. For example, the nature of Hinduism reflects a non-proselytizing feature, while certain sects have adopted missionary tendencies influenced by external forces.
15) Shumni (Sumni, Sunni):
Sunni refers to the largest branch of Islam, characterized by its acceptance of the first four caliphs and adherence to established traditions. In India, Sunni Muslims arguably did not focus on proselytism as much as expected, influenced by historical contexts of power and governance.
16) Power:
Power in the Indian context often relates to the historical dominance of certain religions and the political structures that governed societies. The power dynamics between Hindus and Muslims have evolved through colonialism, independence movements, and ongoing religious conflicts.
17) Doctrine:
Doctrine refers to the set of religious beliefs or teachings upheld by a faith. Hinduism possesses multiple doctrines across its sects, while Christianity has a more uniform doctrine focused on salvation, leading to differing approaches to proselytism between these religions.
18) Pakistan:
Pakistan emerged from the partition of India in 1947, establishing itself as an Islamic state. Its formation was heavily influenced by communal identities and religious affiliations, particularly the Sunni and Shia divisions, impacting religious dynamics in the entire subcontinent.
19) Identity:
Identity in India is multifaceted, shaped by religion, caste, language, and history. The interplay of these factors creates diverse identities within communities, often leading to tensions, particularly in the context of proselytism and conversion between Hinduism and Islam.
20) Birth:
Birth in the context of Hinduism determines an individual's caste and identity, significantly influencing their religious roles and opportunities for conversion. Unlike Christianity, where conversion is accessible regardless of birth, in Hinduism, one is typically Hindu by birth.
21) Untouchable:
Untouchable refers to those belonging to the lowest caste in the Indian social hierarchy, often marginalized and discriminated against. Their historical plight has made them targets for conversion efforts by various religions seeking to address social injustices.
22) Soil:
[see source text or glossary: #Soil#]
23) Literature:
Literature in the Indian context encompasses religious texts, sacred scriptures, and philosophical writings that inform various faiths. It plays a vital role in preserving the doctrines and practices of Hinduism and Islam, guiding adherents in their spiritual journeys.
24) Dimension:
Dimension represents the various aspects of religion, including beliefs, practices, and social teachings. In India, the dimension of religion often intertwines with politics, leading to complex interactions that influence societal norms and individual behaviors.
25) Nepal:
Nepal, as a self-identified Hindu state, has maintained strict regulations against proselytizing for centuries. The political context and relationship between Hinduism and its competition with Christianity and Islam shape the religious landscape within this neighboring country.
26) Civilization:
Civilization refers to the broad tapestry of social, cultural, and religious practices shaping India's history. The rise of religions like Hinduism and Buddhism has significantly impacted the overall development of Indian civilization and its interactions with external influences.
27) Monotheism:
Monotheism, the belief in one God, contrasts with Hinduism's polytheistic nature. This difference affects the views on proselytism, as monotheistic religions like Christianity actively seek converts while Hinduism traditionally does not emphasize a singular truth.
28) Salvation:
Salvation within religions varies significantly; in Christianity, it is often viewed as a universal goal accessible through faith, while in Hinduism, it is seen through multiple paths, linked to personal duties and dharma.
29) Purity:
Purity is a core concept within Hinduism, closely tied to the caste system and the idea of ritual cleanliness. The notion of purity significantly impacts social interactions and religious practices, especially regarding conversion and acceptance among different castes.
30) Light:
[see source text or glossary: #Light#]
31) Book:
[see source text or glossary: #Book#]
32) Pollution:
Pollution in the Hindu religious context often refers to the impurity associated with untouchability and interactions across caste lines. It serves as a barrier to social and religious integration, influencing conversion efforts and the resulting societal dynamics.
33) Merchant:
Merchant community interactions have historically played a role in spreading religious beliefs, particularly during initial encounters between Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam in trade contexts. Their influence shaped early religious exchanges and the dynamics of proselytism in India.
34) Politics:
Politics in India deeply intertwines with religion, impacting social norms and community identities. The quest for power among religious groups, particularly Hindus and Muslims, shapes the landscape of proselytism and responses to conversions.
35) Universe:
[see source text or glossary: #Universe#]
36) Brahmin:
Brahmin refers to the priestly caste within Hinduism, responsible for upholding religious rituals and doctrine. Their role remains pivotal in the maintenance of the caste system and the socio-religious structures that govern Hindu society.
37) Eternal:
Eternal concepts in Hinduism relate to the immutable laws of dharma that govern existence. This contrasts with monotheistic views of eternity, particularly seen in teachings that focus on salvation through faith alone.
38) Thomas:
Thomas, as referenced in the context of Islam, reflects the presence of early Islamic scholarship and interpretations of religion in India. Figures such as Thomas Arnold played a role in shaping the understanding of Islamic proselytism during British colonial rule.
39) Punjab:
Punjab is a region known for its diverse religious communities, including Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. The history of this area deeply influenced the development of religious identities and tensions in response to proselytism and political power struggles.
40) Limit (Limiting, Limited):
Limit refers to the constraints within which Hinduism operates regarding proselytism. Unlike more aggressive proselytizing religions, Hinduism is generally seen as limited in its approach to conversion, based on doctrinal principles and social structures.
41) Faith:
Faith represents the personal conviction held by adherents of a religion. In India, the nature of faith varies widely among religious communities and plays a significant role in both individual identities and communal interactions.
42) Face (Facing, Faced):
[see source text or glossary: #Face#]
43) Transformation (Transform, Transforming):
Transformation refers to the dynamic changes occurring within Hinduism and Islam in response to external pressures such as colonization. This includes shifts in traditional beliefs, the adoption of proselytism, and redefining identities amongst adherents.
44) Tamilnadu (Tamil-nadu):
Tamil Nadu, a state in South India, has a rich history of cultural and religious diversity. Its experiences with Hindu and non-Hindu missionary activities have shaped local religious landscapes and conversion practices.
45) Impurity:
Impurity is a social construct in Hinduism linked to the caste system. It determines individuals' ritual status, significantly impacting their ability to convert to other religions and their acceptance within the broader Hindu community.
46) Rhetoric (Rhetorical):
Rhetoric in the context of Hindu and Islamic interactions encompasses the discourse surrounding religious identity, conversion efforts, and community relations. It serves as a tool for expressing and shaping perceptions of religious belonging.
47) Conquest:
Conquest reflects the historical processes through which one religion or political entity overtook another. In India, Islamic conquests significantly impacted Hindu identities and interactions, leading to enduring tensions and responses involving proselytism.
48) Peaceful:
Peaceful interactions in the context of religious exchanges characterize some early missionary efforts in India. For instance, Islamic and Christian interactions were often marked by trade and dialogue, leading to the spread of ideas without direct confrontation.
49) Jainism:
Jainism, like Buddhism, is an Indian religion known for its emphasis on non-violence and truth. It also embodies principles that resonate with Hindu beliefs, creating a complex interplay of faiths within the Indian subcontinent.
50) Lineage:
Lineage in the context of the caste system determines social status and religious responsibilities in Hindu society. An individual's lineage often dictates their acceptance within religious communities, affecting conversion possibilities.
51) Network:
[see source text or glossary: #Network#]
52) Devotion (Devoted):
Devoted refers to the deeply held commitments of followers in religious traditions, influencing the ways in which individuals practice and propagate their religions. Such devotion also affects how communities respond to outside influences like proselytism.
53) Kashmir:
Kashmir is a region with a complex religious history, where Hindu and Muslim identities have often clashed. The historical conflicts and the emergence of sectarian identities have profound implications for proselytizing efforts in the area.
54) Rajput:
Rajput identity is closely tied to Hindu warrior traditions in India. Their role in historical power dynamics has shaped religious narratives and the responses of various communities to proselytizing activities.
55) Sharman (Sarma, Sharma, Sarman):
[see source text or glossary: #Sharma#]
56) Debate:
Debate among religions in India reflects the public discourse on core beliefs and practices. Hindu and Muslim communities have historically engaged in debates over conversion and proselytizing methods, influencing the dynamics of coexistence.
57) Temple:
Temples serve as central places of worship in Hinduism, embodying the faith's rituals and communal practices. The presence of temples often reflects the socio-political landscape, which can affect the attitudes towards proselytism.
58) Tamil:
Tamil culture, especially in Tamil Nadu, is an integral part of Indian civilization, showcasing the diversity of religious practices. This unique cultural identity has influenced local responses to religious conversions and missionary activities.
59) Logic (Logical):
Logic in the context of religious belief systems provides frameworks for understanding the nature and purpose of faith. Different religions employ varying logical structures to articulate their doctrines, affecting how they approach proselytism.
60) Agent:
Agent refers to the individuals or organizations promoting religious beliefs and conversions. In Hinduism and Islam, various agents have emerged to facilitate the teachings and reach out to converts, influencing religious landscapes.
61) Human:
Human experiences and interactions are central to understanding the dynamics of religion in India. The diverse human elements involved in proselytism and conversion illustrate the complexities of belief and identity within these faith communities.
62) Guru:
Guru, a term for a spiritual teacher in Hinduism, plays a significant role in guiding disciples. The authority and teachings of gurus can influence the conversion process and shape the beliefs of their followers.
63) Manu:
Manu is associated with the ancient legal texts that provide guidelines on dharma and social order in Hindu society. This foundational concept deeply influences understanding caste dynamics and the religious obligations of individuals.
64) Nadu:
[see source text or glossary: #Nadu#]
65) Khan:
[see source text or glossary: #Khan#]
66) Western India:
Western India, a region with diverse religious communities, has been a focal point for historical interactions between Hinduism and Islam. The dynamics in this area significantly contribute to understanding the proselytizing efforts within these faiths.
67) Three turnings (Three stages):
Three stages refer to the historical phases of Islamic expansion in India, marking significant shifts in cultural and religious dynamics. This history influences contemporary attitudes towards conversion and religious competition in the region.
68) Cosmic law:
Cosmic law in Hindu philosophy, particularly related to the concept of dharma, governs moral order within the universe. Understanding this framework aids in comprehending the guiding principles that shape Hindu beliefs and societal norms.
69) Dharmashastra (Dharma-shastra, Dharmasastra):
Dharma-sastra encompasses the ancient texts that codify the ethical and moral duties required of individuals within Hindu society. These texts greatly inform the traditional views on caste and identity and influence the acceptance of conversion practices.
70) Ashramadharma (Asramadharma, Ashrama-dharma):
Asrama-dharma refers to the duties associated with the stages of life in Hinduism, emphasizing the importance of adhering to one’s responsibilities regardless of birth. This principle shapes the moral education and social roles of adherents.
71) Manifest (Manifested, Manifestation, Manifesting):
Manifestation in religious contexts describes the various forms in which divine presence or teachings are revealed. In Hinduism, different gods represent key aspects of spirituality, highlighting the diverse practices and beliefs within the religion.
72) Determination:
Determination relates to the commitment individuals exhibit towards their religious beliefs. In the context of Hinduism and Islam, determination often shapes the faithfulness of adherents and their receptiveness to conversion efforts.
73) Varnashrama (Varnasrama, Varna-ashrama):
Varna-asrama reflects the classification of society within Hinduism by both caste (varna) and life stages (asrama). This framework forms the basis for social order and individual responsibilities, influencing the dynamics of conversion practices.
74) Purification:
Purification is a central ritual in Hinduism, often linked to the removal of pollution and the restoration of ritual cleanliness. This process is crucial in the practice of conversion and acceptance within the broader society.
75) Vaishnavism (Vaisnavism):
Vaishnavism, a sect within Hinduism, emphasizes devotion to the god Vishnu. Its proselytizing efforts reflect the sect's unique teachings and its role in the larger context of Hindu beliefs and practices.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 164]