Two Studies on Chinese Religions
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Deux études sur les religions chinoises
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions” publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales”)
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G.g.h. Dunstheimer.
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly”)
Full text available for: Deux études sur les religions chinoises
Year: 1957
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
Introduction
The text presents two studies on Chinese religions: the first by Vincent Y.C. Shih, which deals with Chinese rebel ideologies throughout history, and the second by Alan J.A. Elliott, which focuses on Chinese spirit medium cults in Singapore. Shih's work examines popular uprisings from ancient times to the end of the Ming Dynasty, emphasizing the ideological, religious, economic, and political factors that motivated these revolts. Elliott's study provides insights into the practice and societal role of spirit medium cults, particularly in the context of Singapore's Chinese immigrant population.
The Mandate of Heaven in Rebel Ideologies
An essential theme in Shih's research is the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which serves as a religious justification for rebellion. This principle posits that the ruling dynasty retains its legitimacy as long as it governs wisely and justly; failure to do so results in the withdrawal of this divine approval, thereby legitimizing rebellion against the corrupt rulers. This idea appears throughout China’s history, influencing various uprisings, such as the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Taiping Rebellion. Shih argues that these ideologies often articulate the social grievances of oppressed populations, making them pivotal in understanding the motivations behind revolts.
The Role of Religious Movements in Social Discontent
Shih identifies different religious movements that emerged during periods of social turmoil. These movements often merged religious teachings with critiques of economic inequity, exploitation, and natural disasters. He highlights the Yellow Turbans, who led major insurrections in the second century, as an example of how a religious movement could articulate social dissatisfaction while seeking to restore a perceived moral order. The Turbans combined Taoist beliefs with notions of social equality, indicating that religious narratives often served as a vehicle for revolutionary sentiments.
Medium Cults and Their Societal Impact
Elliott's study of spirit medium cults in Singapore reveals how these practices adapt and flourish among Chinese immigrants. Influenced by the absence of connection to ancestral homes, the immigrant community emphasizes the use of mediums to obtain divine guidance and predictions concerning daily life challenges. Elliott explains that these cults provide a means of social cohesion and support for the largely unskilled and immigrant population, filling a void left by traditional family structures and ancestral worship, which are less feasible outside of China.
Economic Interests in Religious Practices
Elliott also investigates the intertwining of material interests and religious practices among the promoters and mediums within these cults. He notes that while many individuals genuinely engage in these spiritual practices, economic motivations frequently underpin their establishment and continuation. Promoters, often motivated by the desire for social status or financial gain, leverage religious sentiments for profit, indicating a complex relationship between spirituality and economic realities. This duality presents a nuanced understanding of faith, wherein patrons might believe in the efficacy of the mediums while also seeking personal benefits.
Conclusion
In summary, both studies contribute significantly to the understanding of Chinese religious practices and ideologies. Shih's examination of the ideological underpinnings of historic rebellions illustrates the power of religion in mobilizing social discontent, while Elliott's work on medium cults in Singapore highlights the adaptations of these practices within immigrant contexts. These analyses reveal the interplay between religion, social grievances, and economic factors, underscoring the multifaceted roles that religious ideologies and practices play in shaping communal identity and voicing dissent.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What does V.Y.C. Shih's study on Chinese rebel ideologies cover?
Shih's study provides a comprehensive overview of popular uprisings in China from the decline of the Qin dynasty to the end of the Ming dynasty, emphasizing the ideological factors that influenced these rebellions.
What common causes led to popular insurrections in China?
Common causes included the concentration of land ownership, harsh exploitation of labor, unbearable taxation, and often exacerbating natural disasters, leading discontented religious sects to turn into violent uprisings.
What role does the 'Mandate of Heaven' play in rebellion ideologies?
The 'Mandate of Heaven' is crucial in legitimizing new rulers who claim authority after overthrowing corrupt dynasties, reflecting a fundamental concept in traditional Chinese political ideology.
How do Chinese spirit medium cults function in Singapore?
These cults serve to provide divine guidance and predictions for daily challenges, allowing practitioners to seek spiritual advice through mediums who claim possession by deities.
What are the characteristics of a medium (dang-ki) in these cults?
A dang-ki is typically young and leads a morally upright life; they enter trances believed to channel the wisdom of deities, often employing dramatic physical displays during rituals.
What is the relationship between medium cults and local Chinese society?
Medium cults reflect socioeconomic conditions and provide spiritual solace for impoverished Chinese immigrants in Singapore, often intertwining commercial interests with religious practices.
How has the mediumism phenomenon changed over time in Singapore?
Mediumism is declining in influence as newer generations, educated in modern systems, increasingly engage with Western ideals and become less involved in traditional spiritual practices.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “Two Studies on Chinese Religions”. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) Dang:
Dang, or 'dang-ki', refers to the mediums within mediumistic cults in Singapore. These individuals, who serve as intermediaries between the worshippers and the deities, perform rituals to obtain divine guidance and predictions, showcasing a unique manifestation of religious practices tied to Chinese culture.
2) Cult:
A cult is a religious group centered around particular beliefs and practices. In the context of mediumistic cults in Singapore, these groups focus on obtaining divine counsel through the 'chen', showing the intertwining of various religious traditions and the socio-economic circumstances of their worshippers.
3) Temple:
The temple serves as the focal point for religious activities in mediumistic cults. Within these temples, rituals are conducted, and mediums perform their duties, embodying the spiritual beliefs of the community in Singapore and emphasizing the role of religious architecture in Chinese civilization.
4) Religion:
Religion is the system of beliefs and practices that connect humanity to the divine. In the context of the studies presented, religion encompasses Chinese popular beliefs, including ancestor worship, Taoism, and Buddhism, as they manifest through various cults and practices within communities.
5) Dynasty:
A dynasty refers to a succession of rulers from the same family or lineage. The historical context of dynasties in China, such as the decline of the Yuan and Ming, informs the ideological foundations of rebellions and spiritual movements that shape Chinese history.
6) Secret (Secrecy, Secretly):
Secret societies play a significant role in Chinese culture, especially in urban areas like Singapore. The clandestine aspects of these societies often intertwine with mediumistic practices, reflecting the hidden dynamics of power and spirituality in social movements.
7) China:
China, as the cultural and historical setting for the ideologies discussed, provides the backdrop for various religious movements, uprisings, and cults. The rich tapestry of Chinese civilization integrates multiple belief systems, including the ongoing impacts of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.
8) Heaven:
Heaven is a central concept in many religious beliefs, particularly within Chinese traditions. The Mandate of Heaven represents the divine legitimacy of rulers, which is pivotal in the context of revolts and the ideological transformation of dynasties.
9) Maitreya:
Maitreya is recognized as the future Buddha in Buddhist tradition, symbolizing hope and the promise of better times to come. His significance is notably present in various uprisings where followers look forward to his manifestation amidst societal turmoil.
10) Trance:
Trance is a state of altered consciousness experienced by dang-ki during mediumistic rituals. This phenomenon allows the medium to channel divine messages, illustrating the intersection of human spirituality and the supernatural in Chinese religious practices.
11) Tongue:
The tongue of the dang-ki plays a critical role in their rituals, often subjected to piercing or injury as part of their mediumistic practices. This physical aspect emphasizes the brutality and self-mortification that occurs in the pursuit of spiritual expertise.
12) Taoism (Taoist tradition, Daoist tradition, Daoism):
Taoism is a foundational element within Chinese spirituality, emphasizing harmony and natural order. Its influence is evident in the practices of mediumistic cults, which blend Taoist principles with other religious elements.
13) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
Buddhist practices and philosophies interweave with Chinese spirituality, influencing beliefs within mediumistic cults. The merging of Buddhism with Taoism and Confucianism reflects the syncretic nature of religious practices in Chinese civilization.
14) Police:
The police play a significant role in regulating and controlling the activities of secret societies and cults in Singapore. Their interventions reflect societal tensions and the balance of power in the religious practices among the immigrant Chinese population.
15) Turban:
[see source text or glossary: #Turban#]
16) Yellow:
Yellow refers to the Yellow Turbans, a significant peasant uprising that marked a pivotal moment in Chinese history. This movement is relevant for understanding the ideological factors linked to social unrest and the quest for equality.
17) Woman (Women):
Women are notably underrepresented in the leadership of mediumistic cults, although they form the majority among worshippers. Their participation emphasizes the gender dynamics within religious practices and the cultural shifts occurring within immigrant communities.
18) Demon:
Demons represent the spiritual adversaries that dang-ki claim to exorcise during their rituals. The fear of demons and the belief in their influence illustrate the spiritual battle that ensues in mediumistic practices and the response to perceived calamities.
19) City:
The city refers to urban centers like Singapore, where Chinese religious practices and mediumistic cults flourish. The urban environment plays a critical role in shaping religious practices and the socio-economic dynamics of immigrant communities.
20) Faith:
Faith encompasses the belief systems and reliance on spiritual entities that guide the actions of dang-ki and their followers. It reflects the depth of conviction found within the mediumistic practices and the broader religious landscape.
21) Soul:
The concept of the soul in Chinese spirituality includes multiple souls residing within individuals. This notion underlies the beliefs in possession and the spiritual interventions that mediums provide, illustrating a complex understanding of human existence.
22) Book:
The T'ai-p'ing king is a significant text connected to the ideological foundation of movements such as the Yellow Turbans. It highlights the role of literature in shaping beliefs and practices within the religious and ideological frameworks of Chinese society.
23) Heaven and earth:
[see source text or glossary: #Heaven and earth#]
24) Possession:
Possession refers to the state in which a medium is believed to be inhabited by a divine entity or 'chen'. This phenomenon underscores the mystical aspects of mediumistic practices and the relationships between practitioners and the spiritual realm.
25) Worshipper (Worshiper):
[see source text or glossary: #Worshiper#]
26) Festival:
Festivals mark significant communal religious observances within mediumistic cults. These events bring together worshippers and showcase the vibrancy of religious life, featuring ceremonies that illustrate the religious syncretism of Chinese beliefs.
27) Incense:
Incense is a common offering in many religious rituals, including those conducted in mediumistic cults. Its use signifies reverence and creates a spiritual atmosphere, illustrating the sensory aspects of worship.
28) Deity (Deities):
Deities are revered beings within the pantheon of Chinese popular religion. In mediumistic practices, they are the focal point of veneration and communication through mediums, highlighting the divine connections sought by the faithful.
29) Village:
Villages represent a smaller community context where mediumistic practices may also thrive. The dynamics and organizations within these localities often reflect on broader urban trends observed in cities like Singapore.
30) Dialect:
[see source text or glossary: #Dialect#]
31) Wealth:
Wealth is a central theme in the socio-economic context of the immigrant Chinese community. Mediumistic cults often address issues of material success, reflecting the aspirations and immediate concerns of the worshippers.
32) Earth:
[see source text or glossary: #Earth#]
33) White:
White refers to the White Lotus sect, which emerged as a religious movement during times of social upheaval. The ideologies surrounding this sect are instrumental in understanding the cycles of revolts and the promise of future salvation.
34) Blood:
Blood, particularly in the context of self-mortification practices by the dang-ki, symbolizes sacrifice and denotes the physical commitment to spiritual rituals. This act underscores the intense devotion and belief in the efficacy of the rituals performed.
35) Lead:
[see source text or glossary: #Lead#]
36) Manifest (Manifested, Manifestation, Manifesting):
Manifestation describes how spiritual entities or beliefs are expressed through mediums during rituals. This concept highlights the dynamic and observable aspects of spirituality within mediumistic practices.
37) Civilization:
Civilization encompasses the complex tapestry of cultural and religious practices, particularly within Chinese culture. The studies reflect how Chinese civilization is marked by diverse belief systems and their evolution over time.
38) Celebration:
Celebration occurs during significant festivals and rituals, marking vital events within the religious calendar of mediumistic cults. These communal gatherings serve to reinforce social bonds and express shared beliefs.
39) Initiation:
Initiation represents the process through which a dang-ki is trained and prepared for mediumistic practices. This often involves elaborate rituals and embodies the concept of spiritual awakening and responsibility within the cult.
40) Divination:
Divination is a practice within mediumistic cults used to gain insight and guidance from the spiritual realm. This tradition highlights the methods through which practitioners and worshippers seek answers to life's uncertainties.
41) Revolution:
Revolution in the context of Chinese history refers to the transformative social upheavals that shaped dynastic cycles. It reflects the socio-political landscape within which religious ideologies and movements have arisen.
42) Knowledge:
Knowledge refers to the understanding and insightful information that dang-ki possess regarding spiritual matters. This expertise is often sought after by worshippers, signifying the complexities within religious practices.
43) Sacrifice:
Sacrifice, particularly through acts of self-mortification, showcases the extremes of devotion found in religious practices. Such acts represent the commitment to spiritual well-being and the quest for divine favor among practitioners.
44) Confucianism (Confucian tradition):
Confucian ideals underpin many aspects of Chinese social and political life. These values influence the familial and communal structures within which religious beliefs, including ancestor worship and filial piety, manifest.
45) Doctrine:
Doctrine refers to the set of beliefs and teachings that define the practices of a cult. The ideologies espoused by mediumistic cults often include elements derived from various religious traditions, highlighting the syncretic nature of their practices.
46) Donation:
Donation represents the financial contributions made by worshippers to support religious activities. This practice illustrates the economic aspects of faith and the communal responsibilities associated with maintaining religious institutions.
47) Violent:
Violent acts often manifest during mediumistic rituals, especially in the context of self-mortification. This physicality underscores the intense spiritual fervor among dang-ki and their commitment to channeling divine messages.
48) Buddha:
Buddha symbolizes the ideals of enlightenment and spiritual awakening within Buddhism. In the broader context of Chinese spirituality, the figure represents the ultimate goal sought by practitioners of Buddhist sects.
49) Family:
Family structures play a significant role in the practice of ancestor worship and the transmission of cultural values. This concept is central to understanding the religious practices of Chinese communities, especially in relation to respect and obligation.
50) Murder (Murdering, Murdered):
Murder is a contentious topic within some sects that justify extreme actions in the name of relieving suffering. This controversial notion challenges ethical boundaries and speaks to the complex interactions between belief and morality.
51) Chang:
[see source text or glossary: #Chang#]
52) Tiger:
The tiger symbolizes strength and serves as an enemy to demons in the context of exorcism rituals. The presence of this symbol in mediumistic practices illustrates the cultural significance attributed to animal representations within spirituality.
53) Chair:
[see source text or glossary: #Chair#]
54) Cheek:
Cheek, in the context of the rituals, relates to the physical aspects of self-mortification practiced by mediumistic cults. Such practices highlight the extremes to which dang-ki go in their pursuit of spiritual connection and divine favor.
55) Lotus:
Lotus is symbolic of purity and enlightenment, often associated with Buddhism. In the context of religious movements, this imagery serves to represent aspirations toward spiritual growth amidst societal challenges.
56) Peace:
Peace signifies the underlying pursuit of balance and harmony in spiritual beliefs. In mediumistic practices, this notion may reflect a hope for resolution and tranquility across turbulent lives marked by socio-economic struggles.
57) Image:
Image represents the visible expressions of deities worshipped in mediumistic cults. The depiction of these spiritual figures plays a crucial role in the faith of worshippers, serving as a focal point for prayers and rituals.
58) Limit (Limiting, Limited):
[see source text or glossary: #Limit#]
59) Drum:
Drums are integral to the rhythms of rituals within mediumistic cults. Their sound enhances the ceremonial atmosphere, drawing followers into a deeper connection with the divine during celebrations and religious observances.
60) Flag:
Flags, particularly those with symbols like the yin-yang or Eight Trigrams, have a significant role in rituals by representing cosmic order. In mediumistic practices, flags enhance the spiritual ambiance and signify the authority of the deities.
61) Wine:
Wine, forbidden among certain sects, reflects the practices of abstention and ethical living. Such prohibitions underscore the divergence of beliefs and lifestyle choices within different strands of Chinese religions.
62) Iron:
Iron features in mediumistic rituals, particularly during acts of self-mortification. This use of iron illustrates the physical severity and dedication of dang-ki in their spiritual endeavors and the intensity of their practices.
63) Hope:
Hope is embodied in the beliefs surrounding figures like Maitreya, who represents promises of future salvation. This element is crucial in motivating followers through difficult circumstances and fostering resilience within communities.
64) Ancestor Worship:
Ancestor worship signifies a key component of Chinese religious practice, representing reverence for familial ties and lineage. This practice, however, is notably diminished in Singapore due to the immigrant experience.
65) Eight bagua (Eight designs, Eight trigrams):
Eight trigrams symbolize fundamental principles underlying Chinese cosmology. Their representation in rituals adds a layer of astrological and spiritual significance, reflecting the interconnectedness of religious beliefs and practices.
66) Self-mortification:
Self-mortification describes the extreme practices adopted by dang-ki to prepare for their roles as mediums. This intense physical dedication exemplifies the spiritual commitment found within the context of mediumistic cults.
67) Disappearance (Disappeared, Disappear, Disappearing):
[see source text or glossary: #Disappearance#]
68) Confession:
Confession is integral to the healing ceremonies conducted by dang-ki, where individuals must admit their shortcomings. This practice emphasizes the relationship between morality and spiritual well-being in mediumistic traditions.
69) Uniform (Uniformity):
[see source text or glossary: #Uniformity#]
70) Palanquin (Palankeen):
Palanquins are used in processions during festival celebrations, symbolizing the transport of deities and the honor bestowed upon them. This practice connects worshippers to their spiritual beliefs and social identity.
71) Foreigner:
[see source text or glossary: #Foreigner#]
72) Spiritual:
Spiritual experiences are central to mediumistic practices, where individuals seek divine insights through mediums. This pursuit reflects a deeper quest for understanding and connection within the religious landscape of Singapore.
73) Mahayana (Maha-yana):
Mahayana encompasses a significant branch of Buddhism that impacts Chinese religious practice. Its ideologies influence how spiritual aspirations are articulated within the broader framework of cults in Chinese society.
74) Epidemic:
Epidemics often invoke the need for exorcism rituals, addressing fears of spiritual afflictions affecting the community. The practices around epidemics highlight the intersection between health, spirituality, and cultural responses to crises.
75) Merchant:
Merchants could play roles in organizing cults, reflecting the intersection of commerce and spirituality. Their involvement brings economic considerations into religious practices, showcasing the complex relationship between faith and material success.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 124]