Traditional Religious Institutions and Modern Messianisms in Fiji
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Institutions religieuses traditionnelles et Messianismes modernes à Fiji
The journal “Archives of Social Sciences of Religions” publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (“Institut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales”)
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Original source:
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Jean Guiart.
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly”)
Full text available for: Institutions religieuses traditionnelles et Messianismes modernes à Fiji
Year: 1957
Copyright (license): © Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
Introduction
The text discusses the socio-political and religious landscape of Fiji, focusing on traditional Fijian institutions and the emergence of modern messianic movements. It highlights the complex interplay of aristocracy, clan structures, and the influence of colonial forces on Fijian society. The text examines specific religious practices, the impact of missionaries, and the evolving nature of Fijian identities as they respond to external pressures and internal transformations.
The Concept of Kalou and Kalou Vu
One key concept discussed is the distinction between kalou (ancestor gods) and kalou vu (mythical deities). Kalou represents specific ancestors revered in both personal and collective worship within clans, often facilitated by hereditary priests known as betes. In contrast, Kalou vu conveys broader mythological figures, such as Ndenggei, who embodies natural phenomena and the cosmic order. These beings reflect the dual dimensions of Fijian spirituality, intertwining daily rituals with overarching mythologies, as communities grapple with colonial influences.
Ndenggei: The Serpent God
The narrative of Ndenggei, the serpent god, is particularly significant. Esteemed as the supreme Kalou vu, he is associated with thunder and earthquakes. His mythological lore illustrates the importance of sacrifice, both in terms of offerings made by devotees and in historical accounts of human sacrifices in his honor. Ndenggei's prominence became even more pronounced during the period of Christianization, as he symbolized a resurgent paganism striving to resist annihilation amidst colonial pressure. His story illustrates the blend of fear, reverence, and cultural continuity within Fijian spirituality.
The Tuka Movement
Another pivotal concept is the Tuka movement, spearheaded by the prophet Ndungumoi in the late 19th century. This movement represented a significant reaction against colonial authority and Christian influence. Ndungumoi prophesied the return of ancestral heroes, framing a narrative of resistance that echoed longing for cultural restoration and autonomy. The Tuka movement illustrates how religious frameworks can be repurposed to catalyze socio-political awakening among marginalized communities in Fiji.
The Nanga Institution
The Nanga institution provides insight into secretive religious practices unique to Fiji. This ritualistic system included sacred enclosures used for ceremonies devoid of tribal divisions, showcasing cooperative spirituality. Rites associated with the Nanga focused on agricultural success and communal ties, which contrasted sharply with the hierarchical and colonial structures imposed by external forces. The nanga, as a cultural site, effectively embodies the community's sacred aspirations for fertility and social cohesion.
The Apolosi Movement
The Apolosi movement, emerging during World War I, signifies a surge of nationalist sentiment among Fijians. Led by a figure named Apolosi, this movement sought to reestablish traditional rites while pushing against colonial exploitation, particularly concerning land and resource control. It highlighted a growing desire for autonomy and recognition. Apolosi's leadership combined elements of religion and politics, showcasing how messianic movements often overlap with indigenous struggles for self-determination.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the interplay of traditional Fijian religious beliefs, colonial interventions, and modern messianic movements reveals a rich tapestry of social evolution. The narratives examined—encompassing ancestral worship, the role of deities like Ndenggei, and the emergence of movements like Tuka and Apolosi—underscore the complexities of Fijian identity. As Fijians navigate their spiritual landscapes amid external pressures, their rich heritage continues to foster resilience and a quest for autonomy, drawing from both their past and present.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What characterizes the political structure of western Viti Levu in Fiji?
The political structure in western Viti Levu is more flexible than in the coastal areas, lacking hereditary priest clans, and allowing for continuous interactions between Melanesia and Polynesia.
What is the significance of ancestor worship in Fijian society?
Ancestor worship was fundamental in Fijian culture, connecting personal and social lives through rituals and mythologies that allowed society to counter colonial alienation.
How does Ndenggei feature in Fijian mythology?
Ndenggei, the serpent god, is a significant deity in Fijian mythology, associated with thunder and earthquakes, and known for demanding human sacrifices and later becoming a symbol during the Christianization of Fiji.
What does the term 'Tuka' refer to in Fijian context?
The term 'Tuka' signifies a messianic movement promising immortality and heralded by Ndungumoi, offering a religious alternative to Christianity and proposing radical societal changes against colonial authority.
What is the role of the 'Nanga' in Fijian religious practices?
The Nanga is a sacred enclosure used for rituals in Fijian society that focused on agricultural fertility, ancestor worship, and the initiation of young men into adulthood.
What events led to the prominence of the Apolosi movement?
The Apolosi movement emerged during World War I, aiming for economic emancipation and revival of Fijian customs, opposing Indian land ownership, and gaining popularity due to its anti-colonial sentiment.
How did the Kelevi movement relate to earlier messianic movements?
The Kelevi movement, emerging later, shared themes with previous movements, focusing on ancestral worship and opposition to the European Methodist direction, while remaining localized and less politically ambitious.
What impact did colonization have on Fijian religious beliefs?
Colonization led to suppressed ancestral beliefs as western administrations imposed new structures. Fijians responded with syncretic beliefs, maintaining traditional practices while navigating colonial authority.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for “Traditional Religious Institutions and Modern Messianisms in Fiji”. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) Nanga:
The nanga is a sacred enclosure used for religious rituals in Fiji, representing a space where ancestor worship takes place. It is a significant element of Fijian culture and religion, symbolizing both communal and spiritual gatherings, underscoring the desire for connection with the divine and the dead.
2) Village:
A village in Fijian society is a community of people often linked by blood ties and shared rituals such as those within the nanga. Villages serve as social and cultural units, where traditional practices dictate communal life and connections to the land, ancestors, and each other.
3) Viti:
Viti refers to the larger geographical context of Fiji, with diverse environments influencing its inhabitants' ways of life. The political dynamics and social structures vary greatly across Viti, impacting how religion, traditions, and kinship manifest among the Fijian people.
4) Priest:
In Fijian culture, a priest often serves as an intermediary between the gods and the people, particularly in religious rituals at the nanga. Their role involves conducting prayers, offering sacrifices, and preserving the rituals of ancestor worship that bind the community.
5) Tuka:
The Tuka is a messianic movement pivotal in Fijian history, symbolizing a yearning for liberation from colonial rule and the return of traditional beliefs. It is characterized by prophecies related to the resurrection of ancestors and a struggle against perceived oppression from foreign powers.
6) Woman (Women):
Women in Fijian society are crucial to cultural continuity, participating in rituals and nurturing familial ties. They embody connections to the divine through maternal and ancestral lines, shaping social structure.
7) House:
The house symbolizes domestic life in Fijian culture, serving as a backdrop for familial and cultural activities. It reflects the intersection of human life with spiritual practices and often functions as a site for various rituals, including offerings to ancestors.
8) Religion:
Religion in Fiji encompasses a blend of traditional beliefs and practices, including ancestor worship and the integration of Christianity following European arrival. The ongoing tensions between indigenous practices and missionary influences illustrate the complex evolution of faith among the Fijians.
9) Earth:
The earth in Fijian mythology is both a physical and spiritual realm, representing life, sustenance, and connection to ancestors. It is often invoked in rituals, underscoring the belief that the land is infused with spiritual power and historical significance.
10) Tapa:
Tapa is a traditional cloth made from the bark of trees and significant in Fijian rituals. It is often used in ceremonies, representing cultural identity, wealth, and communal unity, integral to presenting offerings and engaging in traditional practices.
11) Mountain:
Mountains in Fiji hold immense spiritual importance and are often associated with deities and myths. They serve as sacred spaces which are believed to influence the cosmos and the power of the gods within Fijian religion and cultural narratives.
12) Dead:
In Fijian belief systems, the dead are revered and remembered through rituals and ancestor worship, reflecting a connection between life and death. The concepts of the dead often influence community practices, illustrating enduring ties with ancestry.
13) Island:
The islands of Fiji provide a diverse ecological and cultural backdrop for Fijian society. Each island shapes local customs, beliefs, and practices, influencing how religion and social structures manifest within distinct communities.
14) Young men (Young man):
Young men in Fijian society undergo various initiation rites that symbolize their transition into adulthood, often taking place in sacred spaces such as the nanga. These rites reinforce communal ties, expectations, and responsibilities within the broader cultural framework.
15) Serpent:
The serpent is a significant figure in Fijian mythology, particularly embodied by the god Ndenggei. This deity symbolizes power, chaos, and is associated with natural phenomena like thunder, illustrating the complex relationship between gods and the earthly realm.
16) Carpenter:
Carpenters hold a specialized position in Fijian society, particularly in the framing of rituals and sacred spaces. Their skills facilitate the construction of significant structures, including the nanga and ceremonial items, essential to communal worship practices.
17) Prayer:
Prayer is a fundamental component of Fijian religious practices, connecting the community with the divine. Prayers often seek blessings, forgiveness, and the reinforcement of social bonds, embedding spiritual life into the fabric of everyday existence.
18) Stone:
Stone features prominently in the construction of sacred spaces, such as the nanga, symbolizing permanence and durability in religious practices. Stones often have ties to ancestry and the material culture associated with rituals and ceremonies.
19) Worship:
Worship in Fijian tradition involves various forms of honoring ancestors, deities, and the natural world. It intertwines the sacred and everyday life, illustrating a profound respect for lineage, nature, and the power of the spiritual.
20) White:
The term 'white' often refers to European colonizers and missionaries who impacted Fijian culture and religion significantly. Their presence introduced new systems of beliefs and governance which historically conflicted with indigenous practices and structures.
21) King:
The king embodies traditional leadership in Fijian society, often intertwined with the religious and social hierarchy. Kings play significant roles in fostering community cohesion and managing ancestral worship and rituals.
22) Temple:
The temple is a space dedicated to worship, often functioning as a larger nanga. Within it, rituals to honor the gods and ancestors are performed, and it serves as a physical representation of spiritual belief and community practice.
23) Night:
The night signifies a time for spiritual activities in Fijian culture, often associated with secrecy and the performance of rituals. Ceremonies held at night may invoke deeper connections with the spiritual world, reinforcing communal ties.
24) Food:
Food is central to Fijian rituals and community gatherings, often serving as offerings to deities or ancestors. The preparation and sharing of food during ceremonies underline cultural values of hospitality and connection within the community.
25) Manifest (Manifested, Manifestation, Manifesting):
Manifestation in religious contexts refers to the visible presence of gods or spirits during rituals. It may illustrate beliefs around divine involvement in the lives of the community, particularly through ceremonies involving ancestor worship.
26) Minister:
A minister in Fijian contexts often refers to an indigenous leader within the Christian church, but their role may also overlap with traditional leadership in guiding practices related to spirituality, morality, and community well-being.
27) Desire:
Desire plays a role in manifestations of faith and spirituality, illustrating a yearning for connection to the divine and for the returning of ancestors. This emotional aspect drives communal practices and the ongoing cultural exchange within traditions.
28) Secret (Secrecy, Secretly):
Secret rituals are integral to Fijian religious life, often reinforcing exclusive knowledge and practices. These secret activities typically emphasize a sense of belonging and identity among initiated members of the community.
29) Power:
Power in Fijian context encompasses both spiritual and social dimensions, with traditional leaders and priests wielding significant influence over rituals and community structures. This power often intertwines with ancestral relationships and the natural world.
30) River:
Rivers in Fiji represent vital lifelines connecting communities to nature and spirituality. They often feature in myths and rituals, symbolizing fertility and the flow of life, as well as serving as pathways for the spirits of the dead.
31) Human:
Human connection to the divine is a central aspect of Fijian religion, explored through ancestor worship and rituals. Humans are often viewed as intermediaries between their ancestors and the spiritual world.
32) Bird:
Birds, particularly in Fijian myths, often symbolize connections to the divine and messages from ancestors. The cooing of certain birds, like the pigeon, may signal significant moments in rituals, underlining the intertwining of nature and spirituality.
33) Coconut (Cocoanut):
Coconuts are integral to Fijian culture and rituals, often serving as offerings in religious practices. Their use in ceremonies emphasizes a connection to the land and the provision of sustenance from nature.
34) Evening:
The evening is often a time for communal gatherings and rituals in Fijian culture, symbolizing a transition between the sacred and secular realms. Activities during the evening may connect participants with ancestral spirits and traditions.
35) Forest:
The forest is perceived as a realm filled with spirits and traditional deities in Fijian belief systems. It represents the natural world’s connection to spirituality, mystery, and the offering of resources to communities.
36) Death:
Death in Fijian culture is viewed not as an end but as a transition, deeply influencing ancestor worship and rituals. Traditional practices surrounding death emphasize the ongoing connection between the living and the dead.
37) Ocean:
The ocean symbolizes life and the unknown in Fijian mythology, often intertwined with spirituality and ancestral narratives. It represents both sustenance and mystery, framing the relationship of beings with the element of water.
38) Pakan:
Pagan practices in Fijian culture encompass indigenous rituals and beliefs that predate Christian influences. They emphasize the worship of nature and ancestors, highlighting the struggle between traditional practices and foreign religions.
39) Anti (Amti):
The term 'anti' relates to the resistance against colonial powers and missionary influences in Fiji. Various movements reflect a desire to reclaim traditional practices, beliefs, and identities in the context of foreign domination.
40) Tree:
Trees are significant in Fijian culture, often symbolizing life and nourishment. They are integral to rituals, serving as sources of material for ceremonies and representing ancestral connections to nature.
41) Possession:
Possession in Fijian religious contexts refers to the belief in a person's ability to be inhabited by a spirit or deity during rituals. This dynamic elevates ceremonies, illustrating the profound connection between the spiritual and physical worlds.
42) Child (Children):
Children embody the future of Fijian culture, holding significant roles in traditional rituals and practices. Their participation in rites marks a continuity of cultural and spiritual heritage, connecting them to their ancestors.
43) Warrior:
Warriors, historically significant in Fijian culture, represent strength, protection, and the defense of community values. Their presence in rituals may emphasize themes of bravery and the mutual protection of ancestral heritage.
44) Harvesting (Harvest):
Harvesting in Fijian agriculture reflects communal effort and spiritual significance, tied closely to rituals intended to ensure fruitfulness and connection to the land, ancestors, and the divine.
45) Police:
The police symbolize colonial authority in Fijian society, enforcing laws that shaped the interactions between indigenous practices and foreign governance. Their presence often represents a controlling force against traditional expressions of culture.
46) Heaven:
Heaven in Fijian cosmology refers to the realm of the gods, contrasting with human existence on Earth. It represents a destination for the souls of the deceased and a space of divine power and worship.
47) Indian:
Indians in Fiji refer to the population involved in agriculture, particularly in growing sugarcane. The social and economic interactions between Fijians and Indians have shaped contemporary Fijian culture and community dynamics.
48) Sex (Sexual):
Sexuality in Fijian culture plays a role in traditional rituals and community practices, where certain rites may temporarily relax norms. This aspect reflects broader dynamics of kinship, identity, and cultural expression.
49) Hair:
Hair in Fijian culture may carry symbolic meanings, especially during rituals of initiation. It can signify purity, transformation, and the connection to one's identity and community during ceremonial practices.
50) Club:
A club is used as a ceremonial object in Fijian rituals, symbolizing authority and cultural continuity. Its usage during events reflects traditional values and social order within the community.
51) Cave:
Caves are often linked to spiritual narratives and the dwelling places of deities in Fijian mythology. They serve as sacred spaces where ancient practices and connections to the spiritual world are maintained.
52) Face (Facing, Faced):
The face is often seen as an expression of identity and emotion within Fijian culture. During rituals, maintaining the connection through physical presence often emphasizes the importance of social and spiritual ties.
53) Young girl:
Young girls in Fijian society are seen as future caretakers of tradition and culture, whose participation in community rituals reinforces the handing down of ancestral beliefs and practices.
54) Immortality:
Immortality in Fijian mythology expresses the belief in eternal life through ancestors. It reflects the underlying religious currents that intertwine communal practices with a broader understanding of life and death.
55) Sacrifice:
Sacrifice, particularly of animals, forms a significant aspect of Fijian religious rituals. It symbolizes offerings to ancestors and deities, reinforcing societal beliefs and communal ties within the cultural framework.
56) Hundred:
[see source text or glossary: #hundred#]
57) Eternal:
Eternal themes within Fijian spirituality reflect beliefs in lasting connections between the living and dead, underscoring the importance of continuity in rituals and ancestor worship.
58) Flower:
Flowers in Fijian culture often symbolize beauty and are used in rituals to connect with the divine. They enhance ceremonial spaces, illustrating aesthetic expressions of spirituality intertwined with nature.
59) Wealth:
Wealth in Fijian society encompasses both material and spiritual richness connected to land and resources. It reflects ancestral favor and plays a crucial role in communal cultural expressions.
60) Katavu:
Kadavu is a region within Fiji, holding unique cultural practices and traditions. Its specific geographical context influences the community's engagement in ancestral worship and rituals.
61) Nandi (Nandin, Namdi):
Nandi is a region in Fiji that has been central to various cultural practices and rituals. Its agricultural landscape shapes community life and reinforces connections to traditional values.
62) Queen:
The Queen, particularly in the context of colonial Fiji, symbolizes foreign rule and governance. Her presence is often juxtaposed with indigenous claims to autonomy and traditional leadership.
63) Fruit:
Fruit signifies the bounty and fertility of the land, often central to agricultural rituals in Fijian life. It embodies sustenance and the importance of community in sharing resources during ceremonies.
64) Magic:
Magic in Fijian context relates to the spiritual practices that invoke supernatural powers during rituals. It intertwines with beliefs in the efficacy of prayer and the invocation of deities.
65) Doubt:
[see source text or glossary: #doubt#]
66) Drink:
Drinking in Fijian culture, particularly of kava, plays a central role in rituals and gatherings. It serves as a means of communion and represents a spiritual connection among participants.
67) Judge:
Judgement, both spiritual and social, is a pivotal aspect in Fijian culture, particularly within ancestral contexts. Leaders and priests often serve as judges in upholding traditions and community ethics.
68) Truth:
Truth in Fijian spirituality reflects beliefs in authenticity regarding relationships between the living and dead. It also parallels the community’s quest for genuine connections amidst colonial influences.
69) Space:
Space in Fijian rituals often relates to physical locations like the nanga or natural sites imbued with spiritual significance. It highlights the integration of geography with cultural practices.
70) Sleeping (Sleep):
[see source text or glossary: #sleep#]
71) Mana:
Mana refers to spiritual power and is integral to Fijian beliefs. It symbolizes the connection between individuals and the divine, influencing rituals, leadership, and community identity.
72) Soul:
The soul embodies the essence of individuality in Fijian belief systems, connecting to concepts of the afterlife and ancestral presence. The relationship between the soul and the community shapes rituals and offerings.
73) Book:
Books, particularly sacred texts introduced by missionaries, symbolize the intersection of foreign religious influences with indigenous beliefs. They become tools of faith and authority within the community.
74) Mind:
The mind represents the capacity for belief and understanding in Fijian spirituality. It influences how individuals engage with traditions, rituals, and their interpretations of the world around them.
75) Soil:
Soil bears significance in Fijian culture as a source of life and sustenance, connecting community members to their land. It is a physical representation of the relationship between people and nature.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 245]