The civilization of Babylonia and Assyria
Its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature
by Morris Jastrow | 1915 | 168,585 words
This work attempts to present a study of the unprecedented civilizations that flourished in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley many thousands of years ago. Spreading northward into present-day Turkey and Iran, the land known by the Greeks as Mesopotamia flourished until just before the Christian era....
I. An order of King Hammurapi to clear out a canal. [1]
"To Sin-idinnam, Hammurapi speaks as follows:
"Gather the men who have fields along the Damanum canal to dig [2] the Damanum canal. Within this month, let them complete the digging of the Damanum canal."
II. A royal order to investigate a charge of graft against an official. [3]
"To Sin-idinnam, Hammurapi speaks as follows:
" Shummanlailu has reported as follows: Bribery has taken place in Dur-Gurgurri. The man who took the bribe and the witness to these matters are here. Thus he (i.e., Shummanlailu) has reported. Now this Shummanlailu and a watchman (?) and one ... I am sending down to thee. When you receive this tablet, investigate it and if bribery has taken place, send me an official report [4] of the silver and whatever is (involved) in the bribe, and (send) to me the men who took the bribe and the witnesses to these matters."
III. It is interesting to see the king who compiled the great code thus actively engaged in seeking out and punishing miscreants. Another letter to the same Sinidinnam shows us the king in the same capacity of a rightful judge ordering the restoration of grain to its owner. [5]
"To Sin-idinnam, Hammurapi speaks as follows :
"Amel-tummumu, a Nippurian, thus has reported to me. 'I stored up 70 Gur of grain [6] in a granary. Apil-ili opened the granary and (took the) grain. Thus he reported to me. Herewith I am sending this Amel-tummumu to thee. Send for Apil-ili and let them confirm their statements to thee. See to it that Apil-ili takes the grain and returns it to Amel-tummumu.' "
IV. Military report to an Assyrian king of the submission of certain places in a mountainous region, and a request for further orders. [7]
"To the king my lord, thy servant Ashur-bel-danin, greeting to the king, my lord! The people of Ushkha and the people of Kuda against whom the king my lord sent me have submitted to the authority of the king my lord. Cities which since the days of Shamash and A [8] have never been subjected, now with the aid of the guard at my disposal I subdued completely. Those once dependent remain dependent, those (once,) troops remain itroops of the king. [9]
The entire mountain district now recognizes (the authority [?] ) of the king. May the heart of the king my lord rejoice! The troops at my disposal I shall retain that they may act as a guard.
"Regarding the people of Muma who have not (yet) submitted themselves, (and) have not accepted the authority of the king and with whom there has been no intercourse, [10] let the king send me his orders."
V. A report from the official astrologer regarding the time of full moon. [11]
"To the king my lord, thy servant Nabu'a. May Ashur, Shamash, Bel and Nabu bless the king my lord ! May my wishes for the king my lord be fulfilled! We held watch on the 14th day moon and sun were seen together." [12]
VI. A careful watch was held for the appearance of the new moon, [13] the exact time of which in default of accurate calculation could not be determined before hand ; the lunar months varied in this way between 29 and 30 days. A report of this order to the Assyrian king, who in accordance with the announcement officially declared the time of the beginning of each month, reads: [14]
"To the king [15] my lord, thy servant, Ishtar-nadinapal, the chief astrologer of Arbela. [16] Greeting to the king, my lord. May Nabu and Marduk and Ishtar of Arbela bless the king my lord. On the 29th we kept watch. The place of its appearance was clouded. We did not see the moon. Month of Shebat, [17] first day, in the eponymate [18] of Bel-kharranu'a."
It follows from the report that the length of the month in question was fixed at 30 days.
VII. Usually, extracts were attached to the reports from the astrological hand-books furnishing the omens for the phenomena reported, the day of the appearance of the new moon, of full moon, of the day of disappearance at the end of the month, of an eclipse and so on ad infinitum. A full report of this kind accompanied by three extracts reads: [19]
"On the 1st day I reported to the king as follows:
On the 14th day moon and sun were seen together. [20]
"(a) If moon and sun are seen together on the 14th day, ordei and prosperity in the land. The gods will be gracious to Akkad," [21] joy among men. The cattle of Akkad will graze in security.
"(b) If the moon reaches the sun [22] with faint illumination, one horn shading the other, [23] justice will prevail in the land. The son will be faithful to the father." [24]
"(c) If on the 14th day the moon was seen with the sun, [25] the king of the land will be (filled with) wisdom.
"On the 14th day sun and moon were seen together."
VIII. Report of an eclipse of the moon. [26]
"To the gardener, [27] my lord, thy servant Nabu-shumiddin, the chief astrologer of Nineveh. May Nabu and Marduk bless the gardener my lord ! On the 14th day we held a watch for the moon. An eclipse of the moon took place. "
IX. An eclipse [28] was always looked upon with a certain amount of terror. The evil omen varied, however, according to the direction in which the shadow passed over the moon or a portion thereof. For this purpose the face of the moon was divided into four sections, one represented Akkad or Babylonia, another Assyria, a third Elam a general term for the East and a fourth Amurru a general term for the West. A report of this character reads. [29]
"To the king my lord, thy servant Nabu-akhe-irba. Greeting to the king my lord. It is a day of terror. I cannot report favorably. The eclipse began in the east [30] and moved to the west. The planets Jupiter and Venus stood therein [31] till they were released. Greeting to the king my lord. It is an evil sign for Amurru. [32] In the morning the evil portent of the moon eclipse shall have passed away from the king my lord." [33]
X. A report regarding favorable days for certain undertakings. [34]
"To the king, my lord, thy servant Nabu-akhe-irba. Greeting to the king my lord ! May Nabu and Marduk bless the king my lord ! Regarding the carrying out of a building operation about which the king has made inquiry, this month is favorable for the sacred service [35] favorable, therefore, for carrying out the operation. On the 13th, 15th or 17th day let him carry it out.
"In regard to sacrifices about which the king, my lord, has inquired, this month is favorable for bringing them. To-morrow or the morning after as it pleases the king, my lord, let him bring them.
"In regard to Ashur-mukin-palu'a, [36] about whom the king my lord has made inquiries let him go. It is a favorable time for going.
"May the king, my lord, raise his grandchild on his knees.? [37] Let him, i.e., the grandchild) go at once to present himself."
XI. A report regarding a storm and a rainbow. [38]
"If a heavy storm breaks forth in the month of Adar, the land will suffer injury. [39]
"A rainbow (appeared), extending from the zenith to the horizon of heaven without rain."
"If a rainbow extends through the city, things will go well with the city, with the king and with the princes." [40]
From Akhesha, of Uruk.
XII. A report of the birth of a monstrosity. [41] The report begins with an extract from a hand-book, giving the interpretation of the omen involved in such an occurrence.
"If a foetus has eight feet and two tails, the ruler will acquire world sovereignty." [42]
"A certain butcher, named Uddanu, reported as follows: A sow in throwing off gave birth to a foetus that had eight feet and two tails. I preserved it in salt [43] and have kept it in the house."
From Nergal-etir.
XIII. Report of the defilement of a most sacred portion of the temple of Nabu in Nineveh. [44]
"To the king my lord, thy servant Nergal-sharrani. Greeting to the king my lord! May Nabu and Marduk bless the king, my lord. A mouse was seen in the court of the bitanu [45] of the Nabu temple, and a rat on the wall of the inner chamber. [46] The purification rites have already been arranged for. The ceremony will be carried out to-morrow without delay by Adad-shumusur."
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
King, Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi (London, 1900), No. V.
[2]:
i.e. t in the sense of clearing out.
[3]:
King, Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi (London, 1900), No. VIII.
[4]:
Literally "seal," i.e., an official document with witnesses and seals.
[5]:
King, ib. No. XII. The case was probably one covered by 113 of the Code according to which a creditor has no right to seize the granary of a debtor without an order of the court. See above, p. 300.
[6]:
About 8,400 litres.
[7]:
K. 669 (Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters, No. 246.)
[8]:
i.e., never.
[9]:
A characteristic Assyrian boast, voicing the confidence in the military supremacy of Assyria. As a matter of fact, however, rebellions against Assyrian authority were constantly taking place. See above, p. 173, 176, etc.
[10]:
i.e., no negotiations for terms of submission have been as yet opened.
[11]:
Rawlinson III, PI. 51, No. 2. See above, p. 260, seq.
[12]:
i.e., were in opposition.
[13]:
This primitive method of fixing the beginning of the month through personal observation of officials was continued among the Jews of Palestine beyond the threshold of our era.
[14]:
Eawlinson, III, PI. 51, No. 6 ; Harper, ib., No. 829.
[15]:
The king addressed in these reports is always either Sennacherib, Esarhaddon or Ashurbanapal.
[16]:
Near Nineveh.
[17]:
llth month.
[18]:
See above, p. 351.
[19]:
Thompson, Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon (London, 1900), No. 154.
[20]:
i.e., full moon appeared on the 14th day of the month. Like the day of the appearance of the new moon, the day of full moon could not be calculated in advance. According to observation it fell on the 13th, 14th or 15th of the month ; and in case the new moon day was not certain owing to the cloudy conditions of the sky but would have to be guessed at, the variation might be even greater.
[21]:
I.e., Babylonia where the hand-books were compiled, though the good omen was applicable also to Assyria.
[22]:
Another phrase to describe full moon.
[23]:
A shadow on one-half of the moon.
[24]:
I.e., no rebellion of the crown prince against his father.
[25]:
I.e., full moon.
[26]:
Rawlinson, III PI. 51, No. 7 ; Harper, ib., No. 816.
[27]:
A high official a kind of major-domo.
[28]:
The Babylonians and Assyrians used a term for eclipse, atatu, literally "darkening," which was applied to any kind of obscuration of the moon or sun often not an eclipse at all, but some obscuration due to atmospheric phenomena.
[29]:
Harper, ib., No. 407.
[30]:
That is, the shadow began on the eastern side of the moon. The orientation in Babylonia for astrological purposes was towards the south. The east side of the moon was therefore to the left.
[31]:
i.e., were affected by the shadow.
[32]:
i.e., for the western districts.
[33]:
i.e., if by morning no evil had set in, the danger was past.
[34]:
Harper, &., No. 406.
[35]:
Some ceremony connected with the building operation to ensure the favor of the gods for the work.
[36]:
A younger brother of Ashurbanapal, king of Assyria. If Ashur-mukin-palu'a is identical with the "grandson" mentioned in this letter, then the report must have been made to Sennacherib (705-681 B. c.), the grandfather of Ashurbanapal and of Ashurmukin-palu'a.
[37]:
A somewhat obscure phrase, indicating perhaps a formal presentation at the court.
[38]:
Thompson, ib., No. 252.
[39]:
This is the extract from the hand-book which the astrologer sends the king in answer to an inquiry as to the meaning of a severe storm in the month of Adar the 12th month.
[40]:
Again an extract.
[41]:
Cuneiform Texts, XXVII PI. 45. On the significance attached to monstrosities and all kinds of abnormal marks on infants and the young of animals, see Jastrow, Babylonian-Assyrian Birth-Omens and their Cultural Significance (Giessen, 1914), and above, p. 263, seq.
[42]:
A favorable omen, therefore.
[43]:
As we preserve a monstrosity in alcohol, and send it to an anatomical museum.
[44]:
Harper, ib., No. 367.
[45]:
Probably near the "holy of holies" where the statue of the god stood.
[46]:
The inner division of the temple, leading to the sacred chamber of the god. See further for translations of several hundreds of such official reports of all kinds, astrological, divinatory, dreams, portents, etc. etc., Jastrow, Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens II, pp. 213-445 (liver omens or hepatoscopy) , pp. 457-741, (astrological and atmospheric) pp. 749-775 (oil and water divination) ; pp. 843-946 (birth omens) ; pp. 946-969 (dreams, miscellaneous portents).