2. Description of Classes and Castes

401 (B) CLASSES AND CASTES—Dr. D.C.Ganguly informs us that the population 28 26 Dhanapala .27 of Malwa mainly consisted of the Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Kayasthas, Vaisyas, sudras and Tailikas. clearly refers to the four Varnas and Asramas. There is no specific reference to the superiority of the Brahmins, irrespective of their learning or the lack of it. But they certainly enjoyed a high position from which they expected respect from the royalty and conferred their blessing when they duly got it. They lived in a welldefined colony of their own. The term 'Dvijati' signified the first three classes, viz., Brahmins, Ksatriyas and Vaisyas. Many Brahmins lived on alms and this seems to have contributed to lowering their respectable position in the society, especially the Jains, though the Saivite royalty seem to have respected the 'Vipra' class to which Dhanapala belonged and on which the Paramara kings conferred due honours. The srotriyas were always engaged in .30 26. History of Paramara Dynasty, p.239. 27. Tilakamanjari, p.12(22); 13(21). 28. ibid., p.116 (13ff;): 3444 jandyamanom dvijatiparisadbhih .... 29. ibid., p.11(6): sabalom ka 30. ibtd., p.348 (19) : - trivarnarojina 31. Tilakamanjari, p. 44 (9):- yacaka dvija ina 32. ±hidxx p.tak±7jx 31 ✓ 444 fast/214|fo dvijasama jaih dvijasamajaih -- 1 dvijatisabdenah--- 1 katham pratigraha- man gikaromi - 1 xxpx 68KHffx)x

402 muttering of the Mantras and preservation of their respective Vedic tradition by their adherence to sacrificial performances and they abstained from drinking and 33 meat-eating. It is significant that though the Vidyadhara Muni was supposed to be a Jain monk, Dhanapala has mentioned the sacred thread in his case. The Vaikhana- 35 34 36 sas were certainly Brahmins; so also were the Tapasas. Dhanapala definitely speaks as a Jain when he slyly refers to the exceeding cruelty of the Brahmins. 37 To this day the office of the religious priest (purodhas) and the 38 temple-priest (devalaka) has been held by the Brahmins some of whom gradually took to Jainism. The same situation might have obtained in the days of Dhanapala also, though he has not specifically mentioned it. But the function of a 'Pauranika' was not necessarily that of the Brahmins, as the same could be performed by Jain 39 nuns ; but then the word 'Purana' would signify not the Sann♥MandyaPAKKKOHU 32. ibid., p.15(13): 11 211291642014= adhyayana mukharonmukha dvijesu 33.33. ibid., p.51(3ff.). 211291&2014_=-- -. ;68(6ff.): satrinam bhavanesu 34. 1b 1d., p. 24 (5tt.): --- prakaropalaksamana brahmasutram · angalaksmi dudhanam| 35. ibido, p. 358 (811.); prakramyanta pachi tumane moreja nisannai vrddhavaikhanasaih prabhatikani gaya stotragitakani- .. 36. ibid., p.202(lff.). -1 37. ibid, nisadalo ka ddhikanirdeyadvijatibhih ... 1 38. ibid., p.15(5); 67(5) 39. 1b 1d, p.331 (10ff.) : yathavasaramabhinavani pauranikakhyana kani ibid., p.331(10ft)? kathyata sthavira tapasi samuhana - 1

403 Brahmanic Puranas but the Jain ones instead, such as the Mahapurana of Jinasena, the Padmapurana of Ravisena and others. There is no definite evidence to think that the ministers and the officer in charge of religion (Dharmaand dhyaksa), the cook (Supakara) were necessarily Brahmins. In the opinion of M.M.Gaurishankar Ojha, the Brahmin class had not broken up into sub-castes till the tenth century, though Al-Beruni has taken note of the commencement of this process. 40 As has been noted above, the then rulers of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa were a mixed class of Brahmaksatra. But Dhanapala seems to have avoided any referesocial nce to this. They established/relations with various ruling dynasties of India by intermarriages. The Ksatriya class is referred to as 'Rajaloka' in general. M.M. Gau- 41. rishankar Ojha observes that the position of this class was alsoconsidered high in view of the political power they possessed. Mostly it was from this class that the positions of king, commander-in-chief and soldiers came, though Rudraditya, the minister of Munja seems to have been a Modh Brahmin and Kulacandra, the commander-in- -chief of Bhoja's army seems to have been a Jain Bania. 40. Alberuni’s India, I,pp.100-101. 41. MBS, p.42.

404 These classes were getting mixed up due to the influence of Jainism and inter-class marriages. Due to the lack of land for cultivation and due to the influence of Jainism which looked to it with disfavour, many Brahmins and Ksatriyas took to other professions. rare, There is no specific mention of the Vaisyas as a class, but the caste named 'Vanik' is mentioned. They were generally tradesmen, and naturally rich and conardly, carrying on their business both by land and by 43 sea. Accidental inter-caste love-marriages were not but they were not considered with approval by the caste-men. Thus, Taraka was rather ashamed and ■ he did not go to live with his Vanik relatives after his marri- 44 age with the daughter of a sailor. The money-lenders were known by the name 'Thakkura', who were wellknown for their obstinacy in confiscating the belongings of villagers in the process of realizing the loans passed 45 on their manes. ; 67 (8) :-- apa nika ... 42. Tilakamanjari, p.117(13):--404,924129. 130 (5) : vanijatisahabhuva bhiru tvena --- 1 athya naigama 43. ibid., p.117(5): 3112211 STAT... ; ; 127 (10) samyatrika 44. ibido, p.129(12) sahagatai rvanigbhih svadesagamanatha punah punarabhya- mano'pi darsanatkanthitena jnativargena sopa lambha vacanai samdesadanairunma- nikriya mano'pi trapaya sthito'traiva na gayo nijasthanam | ! 45. ibid., p.117 (18ff.) alabdhavakasa thakura hathanirakrte rajjayaya pratigrddha grhita bhande rahindadbhih (grameyakaih ):

405 The Caranas or Bandins, according to Dr. K.R.Potdar, were a progeny of a Ksatriyan father and a sudra mother. * 46 The Kayasthas, again a caste of persons born of a Ksatriya 47. father and a sudra mother were generally clerks of the courts. 48 Some of the class-nomenclatures originated from the religious sect to which the people adhered. Among these, Dhanapala has mentioned, the Vaisnava, Bauddha, Svetambara, 49 and Raudra. 50 51 Kirata 52 Many other classes got their names from the occupations of the people, such as Adhorana, Luntaka, Kalada, 53 Ganika 54 Navika, or Kaivarta or Dhivara, 55 sthapatya 56 Gathaka, 57 Nartaka, 58 Ganaka, Kulala, 60 vaganika, 62 Supakara, and so on. 59 Some other class-names came from the place of their 65 residence, such as Grameyaka, 66 63 Nagaraka, 64 Ballava, 67 Vanecara, Atavikavargga, and so on. 46. JUB, Vol.XI, Pt.II, Sept.1942,p.115. 47. Sanskrit English Dictionay, p.274 a.. 48. Tilakamanjari, p.246 (19) : aksapatalamasthaya kayasthana--- | 49. ibid., p.12(14); 15(13); 4(14); 10(21). 50. ibid., p.116(2-5). 59. ibid., p.76(22). 51. ibid., p. 119(16)./60. ibid.,p.145(21). 52. ibid., p.85(1). 53. ibid., p.2(20). 54. ibid., p.245(18ff.) 61. ibid.,p.200(17). 62. ibid.,p.373(12). 63. ibid., p.118(9ff.). 55. ibid., p.126(19-20);283/64. ibid., p.283(12). 56. ibid., p.15(1). /. (9)./65. 57. ibid., p.18(14). 58. ibid., p.18(16). ibid., p.118(6). 66. ibid., p.200(18). 67. ibid., p.200(19). 61