3.6. Brahmanical Rituals in ancient India

The Paumacariya reveals that Brahmin Kapila used to go to the forest every morning to gather 'Kusa' grass, fire sticks and fruits. His abode is called Agnihotragrha (35.5,7,9,27). It indicates that every morning and evening oblations were poured into the sacred fire. The domestic fire was the essential feature of the Vedic rituals, because all the rituals for householders centred round the worship of the fire to which oblations were offered². Deity worship:-The deities which have been referred to as held in reverence by the followers of Brahmanism are Caturmukha, Indra Skanda, Rudra and Soma. Caturmukha:-The Paumacariya (11.72) mentions that he expounded the Yajnas (killing of animals in sacrifices) as described in the Vedas. According to the Brahmanical tradition he is the first member of the Hindu triad and the active creator of the universe. Originally he had five hands but one of them was destroyed by the fire emitting from the central eye of Siva when the former showed disrespect to the latter. His name is not found in the Vedas and the Brahmanas in which the active creator is Hiranyagarbha. According to the Ramayana he sprang from the ether on earth which originated from water, the first element of creation. In the Mahabharata he is said to have sprung from the navel of Visnu. In the Puranas he is held inferior to Visnu and the Saiva authorities regard Mahadeva as the creator of Brahma.³ The Paumacariya while critisizing the persons who are not celibate, who indulge in injurious activities, but pretend to be Brahmanas, refers. to Skanda (khanda), Indra and Rudra (105.49) as the persons who 1. OP. Cit. J. Dowson, p. 268. 2. SRL Gr, p. 207; 3. Dowson, p.56.

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 493 should not be regarded as Brahmanas in the true sense, because they are vow-less. Thus the Paumacariya is referring to the deities of the Brahmanical tradition, who were worshipped with reverence by the followers of Brahmanism. Skanda: In the Avasyaka Curni¹ people are said to be celebrating festival on the full moon day of Asoja in honour of him. According to the Brahmanical² tradition he is the god of war, riding on peacock. He is the son of Siva and Parvati. He was born for the purpose of destroying Taraka Daitya. Indra: In the Nisithacurni, it is mentioned that people celebrated a festival in his honour on the full-moon day of Asadha³. He is a Vedic god of first rank 4. His weapon is the thunder-bolt. He governs the weather and dispenses the rain. In later mythology he is inferior to the triad, is the seducer of Ahalya, is defeated by Ravana and is the In the Jaina sender of nymphs to beguile the holy men from penances. mythology Indras are the lords of the heavens, and they worship Jinas. . Rudra: In the Vedas he is a god of storms, diseases as well as a healer. In later mythology he is the son of Brahma and as he wept at he was named Rudra. He is the time of his birth so also called Mahadeva. In the later ages, Rudra developed into powerful god Siva. Under the name of Mahakala, he is the destroyer but destruction means reproduction, hence he became Siva or Sankara (the auspicious). Thus he became supreme lord or Mahadeva. There are 11 Rudras also mentions 11 in the Hindu Mythology. The Jaina mythology Rudras who are said to have descended to hells on account of the penances performed for material ends. was Soma (11.73):-The reference is to the propitiation of Soma etc. by performing animal sacrifices. In the Rgveda, it is a juice of Soma plant, which is offered to the deities. Later on it appropriated to Moon or Osadhipati. who was considered the guardian of sacrifices and penances. In the Visnupurana he is the monarch of the Brahmanas. Elsewhere he is said to have emanated from the ocean when 1. Ibid, p. 315 (Life in Ancient India, p, 217). 2. Dowson, p. 152. 3, Nisi Cu, 19. p. 1174. (Life in Ancient India, p. 216). Dowson, pp.269, 296. 4. 5. See Supra. 6. Dowson. 7. Tiloyapannatti, 4.14.39-42.

494 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM it was churned by the Devas and the Asuras¹. According to the Jaina mythology, Soma is one of the Lokapala of Indras of the Kalpavasidevas². Prajapati (17.13):-Anjanasundari after having been abandoned by her relatives, expresses in grief as to why the Prajapati has made her body full of sorrows and troubles. At 15.64 Pavananjaya remarks that Anjana's body is so formed as if it is modelled by Prajapati. In the Vedas the term is applied to Indra, Savitri, Soma, Hiranyagarbha and other deities. Manu applies it to Brahma as an active creator and supporter of the Universe.3 Taking of holy baths at the Tirthas (Majjai titthesu 22.85) is referred to and it is said that taking holy bath for purification by those who take meat etc. is a futile effort to shake off the shackles of sin. Animal Sacrifices:-Vedic sacrifices which involved animalslaughter have been severely critisized in the Paumacariyam. It is said that the heretics compiled the Vedas and preached animal-slaughter in the sacrifices (jannesu 4.79-80). The priests (Purohitas) have been referred to as presiding over the animal sacrifices (14.16). Ravana is said to have destroyed the animal sacrifice (14.16) which was being performed by king Marutta of Rajagrha (Ch. 11). On that occasion many kinds of animals were brought and tied to the posts and many Brahmanas had flocked there to take part in it. Narada, a Jaina sage also reached there and opposed the sacrifice but the Brahmanas explained that the sacrifices had been preached by Caturmukha, that they should be performed by the first three Varnas-castes, that animals should be sacrificed propitiating the gods to attain heaven. On this occasion a story of king Vasu, Parvataka and Narada had been narrated in which Vasu supports Parvataka who preaches that goat should be killed in sacrifices. Parvataka is reborn as a Raksasa and then he in the disguise of a Brahmana preaches various sacrifices such as Gomedha, Pitrmedha, Matrmedha, Rajasuya, Asvamedha and Pasumedha in which the respective persons and animals are ordained to be slaughtered (11.41.42), so that they would attain heaven. Taking of meat and wine was also freely ordained by him*, 1. Dowson, p. 301. 2. See Supra. 3. See Op. Cit. Dowson. 4. Gomehanamadhee janne payaviya sura havai/: Bhanai agammagamanam kayavvam natthhi doso ccha// Piimehamaimehe rayasue asamehapasumehe/ Eesu maria vva, saesu namesu je jiva// Jiva mareyavva asavapanam ca hoi kayavvam/ Mamsam ca khaiyavvam jannassa vihi havai esa 11.41.43.

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 495 Now let us examine how far the charges levelled against the followers of Vedic rituals are justified in view of the sacrifices advocated by the Vedic literature and other historical evidences about the performing of the above mentioned sacrifices. First of all we find that some hymns of the Rgveda have been associated with the horse-sacrifice. In the latter Samhitas and Brahmanas, The animal and Soma sacrifices are found to be very common². Brahmana explain the complicated procedure of the Yajnas. The Srautasutras and the Grhyasutras give us details about the method of performing various sacrifices. The Smrtis also refer to the daily domestic sacrifices. The Yajnaparibhasa sutra³ of Apastamba clearly lays down in support of the contention of the Paumacariyam that animals, besides other things also, were offered in the sacrifices, that the sacrifices were prescribed to be performed by the first three Varnas, that the three Vedas prescribe sacrifices and that they were presided over by Brahmanas. As regards the offering of goats, the Sankhayana Srautasutra refers to the immolation of goats (14.2.14; 14.6.2; 14.7.3-4: 14.13.1; 15.1.21- 22). The Paraskara Grhyasutra (4.13.1) refers to the offering of meat of red goat during the Sraddha ceremony and that of goat and sheep in Pitrtarpana (4.12.5). Further according to the Grhyasutras goats offered to guests is said to be a sacrifice to the Gods. The Manusmrti also refers to the offering of the meat of goat for the libation of the manes on the occasion of monthly Sraddha (3.268-70). About the offering of various other animals in the sacrifices, the Sankhayana Srautasutra (6.1.20) refers to the Nirudhapasu sacrifice which was performed for the purpose of fulfilling some special wish. In the Sraddha ceremony the offering of meat of various animals have been prescribed in the Paraskara Grhyasutra (4.12.6-12) and the Manusmrti (3.268-270). The animals mentioned in that connection are the fish, deer, ram, boar, bison, hare, tortoise, sheep etc. The Tajnaparibhasasutra (154) refers to various utensils used for preparing the meat of different animals. Manu (15.39) lays down that animals have been created by Svayambhu for sacrifice and their killing in a Yajna is not killing. But he does not permit their killing for other purposes. I. Rgveda, 1.162. 2. SRL. Gr, p. 205. 3. Sut, 1-3.21. 4. See The Cambridge History of India, I. p. 208.

496 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM He further says that the killing of animals in accordance with the prescription of the Vedas is not to be cognised as Himsa.¹ About the efficacy of the Yajna it is said that the Dvija and the sacrificed animals attain to superior existence. As regards the taking of meat and wine (Sura) the Brahmanical references are not wanting. The limbs of the sacrificed animal formed the 'daksina' of the Rtvik". Sura was used in oblations offered to the Manes. The remaining part of the wine was offered to the Acarya and Antevasin 5. Manu (5.31) prescribes that the animal flesh associated with the Yajna should be taken but not on any other occasion. He (5.48) further lays down that the killing of living creatures leads to hell. The Paumacariya states, as already mentioned, that the father (pita), mother (mata) and the king (raja) were killed in the Pitr, Matr and Rajsuya Yajnas respectively. This statement seems to be based There on hearsay and is made for the sake of criticism only. was a Pitr-Yajna rite which was which was to be performed daily by the householders. In this ceremony food and water was offered to the manes and on the occasion of performing monthly Sraddha the offering of meat is also prescribed (Manu, 3.82;3.123). In the Madhyama-astaka ceremony 'sura' was offered to the mothers (Para. Gr. Su, 3.3.11). Pitr-medha is dealt in the Taittiriya Aranyaka (VI) and its hymns are found in the Sukla Yajurveda (35)7. But it has nothing to do with the killing of father. Thus we find that the Paumacariya is making wrong allegations. The Sankhayana Srautasutra (4.3.5) mentions Pindapitryajna but in it no killing is envisaged. It was a sacrifice of rice balls. The Sankhayana Srautasutra further describes a Purusamedha also (XVI 10 & 12). A Brahmin is purchased and then let loose (16.10.9). He is then sacrificed with other animals (16.12.12 & 21). The rites of Rajasuya Yajna were performed on the occasion of a royal conse: cration. It is said in the Sankhayana Srautasutra (15.12.1) that by performing this Yajna the performer attains sovereignty and supremacy over 8 1. Ya Vedavihita himsa niyatasminscaracare / ahimsamevatam vidyad Vedat dharmo hi nirbabhu // 5.44. 2. Ibid, 5.12. 3. Para, 3.11.9. 4. Ibid, 3.3.11. 5. Ibid. 6. Vide Vaidika Sahitya aur Sanskriti, 243. 7. Ibid, p. 125. 8. See The Cambridge History of India, p. 126.

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 497 all realms. In this sacrifice in the preliminary stage a he-goat was sacrificed. Other Srautasutras do not mention this killing¹. Then two pregnant cows were immolated (XV. 14.13). Then a red he-goat an ewe and a bull was immolated for expiating various gods (XV. 15.2-4). Sura was offered and partaken by the Brahmanas (XV. 15.15). The sacrificial fee is said to be 10000 cows (XV. 16.16). Thus the killing of father, mother and kings in the sacrifices as stated in the Paumacariya seems to be a false allegation. K. K. Handiqui (p. 378) observes that the Sunahsepa legend of the Rgveda is taken by some as a reference to the human sacrifice while some hold it to be a reminiscent of an early rite of Rajasuya and others reject it totally. > The Satapatha Brahmana (13.5.4.1) states that by performing an Asvamedha sacrifice one propitiates his sins and even the heinous sin of killing Brahmana is anulled. In the Srautasutras the Asvamedha sacrifice is described.2 The Sankhayana Srautasutra mentions that the performer of the Asvamedha attains all wishes, achieves all worldly attainments (XVI.1). In it a horse is let loose for a year (XVI. 13.14-15). After that period the horse (XVI.3.13), a hornless he-goat, a go-mrga and many other animals are killed. Thus in this sacrifice a horse was actually killed. a The Gobhila Grhyasutra (3.6) lays down that Goyajna and Asvayjna are performed for the prosperity of the animals concerned, but it does not ordain the killing of these animals. j There are references to the Gosava sacrifice in the Brahmanical literature. It was a Vrata which was observed imitating the ways of an ox. The sacrificer slept with his mother, sister and a woman of his gotra. He drank water and ate grass with face downwards and ease himself whenever he felt the necessity³. It was observed during old age but no COW or bull was killed on this occasion. However there are references to the killing of cows on the occasions of a wedding or a sacrifice*. The cow was killed as a rule in the honour of the guest". In the Astaka ceremony, the parts of the cow killed on the occasion were given to the Brahmanas, In the Grhyasutras cow-sacrifice is prescribed compulsorily on diffe- 1. Sankhayana Srautasutra, p. 433. 2. See Vaidika Sahitya aur Sanskriti, p. 287. 3. Jaiminiya. Brahmana, I. 113; Taittiriya Brahmana, II. 7. 6; Tandya Brahmana XIX. 13.1; Vide Handiqui, p.384. 4. Para, 1. 3. 30. 5. SRL. Gr, p. 82. 6. Ibid. p. 100. 32

498 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM rent occasions such as those of Astaka, Anvastakya, wedding, Sulagava sacrifice, reception to a Snataka, honouring of a deseased relation on the 11th day. Under the Haviryajnasoma, the Sankhayana Srautasutra prescribes the immolation of goats (14.2. 14; 14.6.2;14.7. 5), cow (14.3. 19; 14. 5. 7; 14.6. 3; 14.75); and barren COWS (14. 2. 15). In the Srautramana ceremony a he-goat, an ewe (14.13. 1) and barren cow (14.13.2) were immolated. In the Vajapeya Yajna animals such as goat, ram, ewe and cow (XV. 1. 21-22) were killed. The Paraskara Grhyasutra mentions that in the Madhyama Astaka ceremony the fat of a cow was oblated (3.3.8-9). The Gobhila Grhyasutra (3.10.18) states that the cow was sacrificed in the Astaka festival. The Hiranyakesi Grhyasutra, (2. 5. 15. 8) mentions that at the time of taking the meat of cow, a part of the cow-meat was offered to the Brahmanas. The Sulagava sacrifice is prescribed for procuring cattle, sons, wealth, fame, long life and heavenly bliss. It is meant for propitiating Rudra and for averting plague among the cattle". Some of the Grhyasutras make it symbolical only and no killing of ox is mentioned 4. The Asvalayana and the Paraskara Grhyasutras describe actual killing of an ox and they incorporate the cow also as a sacrificial victim". In the Vrsotsarga Yajna a bull was killed but according to some Rsis the bull was not killed 6. The Sankhayana Srautasutra (4.17.11) also mentions the slaughtering of oxen in sacrifices. The animal sacrifice is described in the Paraskara Grhyasutra, (3.11). In this the animal selected for sacrifice is other than cow (3.11.1). The limbs of the animal formed the 'daksina' of the Rtvik (3.11.9). It further mentions that for some expiation an ass also can be sacrificed (3.12.2). In the Nirudhapasu Yajna many kinds of animals were sacrificed in view of fulfilling the special wishes' and it has been already mentioned that animals were the objects of offering in the Yajnas³. Thus the allegations made by the Paumcariyam about the slaughtering of animals in the sacrifices is corroborated by the Brahmanical literature itself. Now it sbould be seen whether the references are merely literary or actually the animals were immolated. 1. Ibid, p. 109. 222. 2. See SRL Gr, p. 110. 3. Para, 3. 8. 3. 4. Hiranyakesin Grhya Sutras. 5. SRL, Gr, p. III. 6. Para, 3. 9. 9. 7. Sankhayana Srautasutra, 6, 1, 20. 8. Apastambya Tajna Paribhasa, Su. 1.

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 499 The Pali canon refers to the performing of a great sacrifice by a Brahmin. In it hundreds of bulls, calves, goats and other animals were brought for slaughtering. Lord Buddha is said to have stopped that sacrifice¹. Then the Prasastapada's Bhasya prescribes all sorts of Yajnas in connection with the duties of a householder². Kalidasa refers to the immolation of animals in the sacrifices³. Even Sankara in his Bhasya on the Vedanta Sutras (3.1.25) speaks of Vedic rites being performed by cultured people. 4 On the evidence of the ancient inscriptions Dr. Altekar remarks that the Vedic sacrifices were most popular during the third and fourth centuries A. D³. They were performed by the rulers such as feudatory lords, kings and emperors and the most popular one was the horsesacrifice. The Vedic sacrifices were on descendancy later on but they were sporadically performed till quite recent times." V. M. Apte remarks that the growing influence of Bhakti cult and the association of cow with Krsna as well as the attack of Buddhists and the Jainas had given great set back to the slaughtering of animals and certainly the cow was reverred and its killing was prohibited. Jaina conecption of Sacrifice:-The sacrifice which involved death of a large number of animals is severely criticised in the Paumacariyam. It is said that the performers are greedy of meat, marrow and blood of the animals and they descend to hells and suffer innumerable miseries in the cycle of transmigration (11.80-81). It further mentions that a real sacrifice (Janna) according to the Arsaveda, consisted of the physical body as the altar, mind as the fire, knowledge as the ghee, and the dirt of Karma as samidha (sacrificial fuel). They all should be burnt in the fire of mental control. The passions such as anger, pride, deceit, greed or attachment and aversion were the real animals to be sacrificed along with the senses. Truth, forgiveness, non-injury constituted the sacrificial fee. Right faith, right conduct, self control and chastity were the gods to be propitiated. This is the true sacrifice which has been preached by the Jinas. It is performed by mental concentration or meditation and thus it brings about emancipation (11.75-79). 1. Digha Nikaya, Su. 5. 2. Vide Handiqui. p. 377. 3. India in Kalidasa; (B.S. Upadhyaya) 1947, p. 324, 4. Handiqui, p. 377. 5. The Vakataka Gupta Age; Dr. A. S. Alteker (1954), p. 339. 6, Handiqui, p. 378. 7. SRL. Gr, p. 100, 116. See Gita Rahasya, 305.

500 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM This kind of interpretation of Yajna is found in the Gita also. It lays emphasis on performing that kind of Yajna which does not involve animal-slaughter. The oblations to be offered should consist of materials. It further states that with mental detatchment, freedom from attachment & aversion (4.23), the oblations of sense-organs should be made into the fire of self control (4.24) which is ablazed by knowledge (4.27), austerity and meditation (4.28). This kind of sacrifice leads to emancipation (4.32)¹. Popular worship: The Paumacariyam refers to a Jakkhatthana (39.68) and a Jakkhanilaya (82.47) i. e. the Yaksasthanas or the sanctuaries of the Yaksas. It indicates that the worship of the Yaksas was prevalent in the Magadha country as the references indicate. on the Forest deities (Vanadevata 36.14; 17.81) were invoked occasions of difficulties. The worship of forest deities was prevalent as the Paumacariya reveals that Anjana and Vanamala invoked them in their difficulties and requested them for protection. 1. See also Gita Rahasya, p. 308.