Paumacariya (critical study)
by K. R. Chandra | 1970 | 238,015 words
This is an English study of the Paumacariya: the earliest Jain version of Rama's life story, written in Prakrit by Vimalasuri dating to the 4th century AD. In this text, Rama (referred to as Padma) is depicted with lotus-like eyes and a blooming face. The Paumacariya places emphasis on the human aspects of characters rooted in Jain values, contrast...
3.2. Jain ethics in ancient India
The religious conduct called as 'dhamma' 14.108, 'caritta' 33.52 or 'cariyam' 39.52 is two-fold, i.e. the rules concerning lay-devotees or householders and those concerning monks. The former conduct is called Savayadhamma (14.111 Sravakadharma) or Gihatthadhamma (6.120) (Grhasthadharma) or Salambanadharma (33.52) and the latter is termed as Samanadhamma 14.10, (Sramanadharma), or Sahavacariyam 39.52 (Sadhudharma) or Maharisidhamma 6.123 (Maharsidharma) or Nirayaradhamma (5.118 Niragaradharma) or Niralambana dharma (33.52). They are also called as minor and major dharma (dhammo anuo taheva ukkoso 103.80; anujettho or jettho 22.27) respectively. Monk's conduct:-The code of religious conduct prescribed for monk is said to be consisting of observing of five greater vows, five kinds of carefulness and thre kinds of preservation (Panca mahavvayaim samino panca, tinni guttio 4.23)2. Five greater vows are complete abstinences from causing injury, speaking falsehood, committing theft, observing non-celibacy and keeping worldly possessions (HimsaliyaFive kinds of corikkamehunapariggahassa niyatti 14.70; 11.23).3 Samitis are carefulness in walking, speaking, eating, lifting up or laying down of things and excreting (iriya, bhasa, esana, ayananikkheva 1. See for details Pravaca nasara, Int. p. 83.91 & Outlines of Jaina Philosphy, p. 118. 2. See Niyama, IV. 3. See Tattvartha-sutra, VII. 1-2.
480 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM & uccarai 14.71)1. Three Guptis are: Control of mind, speech and body (mana-vaya-kayagutti 14.72)2. Besides that, the monks are advised to subdue the passions of anger, pride, deceit, greed, attachment and aversion (koha mana, maya, lobha, raga & dosa 14.73) which are said to be the most powerful enemies. The Paumacariya states that the monks should observe twelve-fold austerities (barasabheotavo 14.76) for shedding of the Karmic matter from their souls (Kammatthanijjaratthamm 14.76). The austerities are said to be of two types-internal and external (abbhintara 14.75) and (bahyam tapah)3. The six-fold internal austerities are mentioned as expiation, reverenee, service to the saints and worthy people, study, non-attachment to the body and concentration (Payacchitam vinao veyavaccam sajjhao ussaggo & jhinam (14.75)*. The six-fold external austerities are referred to as fasting, eating less than the appetite, taking a mental vow to accept food from a householder only if a certain condition is fulfilled without letting anyone know about it, daily renunciation of one or more of the six kinds of delicacies such as ghee, milk, curd, sugar, salt and oil, mortification of body and sitting and sleeping in lonely places (anasana, unoyariya, vittisamkheva, rasaparicaga, kayaparipida & vivittasayanasana 14.74). The Paumacariya at 22.30,39 and 102.178 specifically refers to the 'arta' and 'Sukla-dhyana'. The other two are the 'raudra' and the 'dharma". Arta is the painful concentration; Raudra is the wicked concentration, Dharma is the religious concentration and Sukla is the pure concentration. Nidana is one of the various types of Artadhyana. It is fixed for obtaining worldly objects. The Paumacariya states that a monk should never fix Nidana (103.109-111), i. e. he should not hanker after worldly objects. It is very harmful. A monk fixing 'Nidana' is compared with a person who is insane and gives up gems for a handful of vegetables or a piece of thread. Further the Paumacariya mentions that the monks should always devote themselves to twelve kinds of contemplations (barasaanupekkhasu 14.77). The Tattvartha-sutra (9.1-2,7) gives their details and states that they are helpful in checking the further flow of Karmic matter into the soul.6 1. See Mula, 5.104-133, 2. Ibid, 5. 134-148. 3. See Tattvartha-sutra, 9,19; Mula, 5.148-161. 4. See Tattvartha-sutra, 9.21-26; Mula,5.163-222. 5. See Tattvartha-sutra, 9.29. 6. See 'Dvadasanu pre ksa' of Kun dakunda and Mula, Ch. 8.
ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 481 Monks are further advised to bear 22 kinds of sufferings (bavisa parisaha chuhaiya 117.24). They are prescribed for developing internal stability. Their details can be known from the Tattvartha-sutra (9.2). 1 Further the Paumacariya lays down that the monks should hold 18.000 kinds of discipline (attharasayasahassa silamganam dharanti sappurisa 14.81). They are described in the Malacara. They comprise of controlling of each kind of activity viz. of mind, speech and body (Yogas) through each of the three agencies (Karanas) of mind, speech and body, each agency in relation to four impulses (Samjnas), every Samjna in relation to give sense organs and every sense organ in relation to protection of ten classes of living beings, each correlated with ten kinds of Dharmas (3 Yogas X 3 Karanas X 4 Samjnas X 5 Indriyas ✗ 10 Kayas X 10 Dharmas-18,000). The details of the ten Dharmas can be known from the Tattvartha-sutra (9.6). Monks are advised to remain free from seven kinds of fears (sattabhayavippamukko 103.84). The Samavayanga (7) and the Malacara (2.53) give their details with minor differences in the names of three of them. Householder's conduct:-The layman's conduct is said to be consisting of observing five lesser vows (pancanuvvayajutto 4.24) and seven disciplinary vows (sattahi sikkhavaehi parikinno 4.24). The latter vows are also divided into two groups viz. three salutary vows and four disciplinary vows (gunavvaya tinni cattariya sikkhao 6.120;14.112). The Tattvartha-sutra states that first five vows of a householder are called anuvratas because they are to be observed partially while in the case of the monks they are called Mahavratas because they are to be followed in their completeness (desasarvatoanumahati 7.2). The first five lesser vows are mentioned in the Paumacariya as non-injury, speaking truth, non-stealing, non-indulgence with another' wife and contentment with limited possessions (ahimsa or thulayaram panivaham nivitti, saccam adattadanam, paradarassavirai or parajuvaina nivitti & santoso 6.119; 14.113; 32.63-67), the three salutary vows (14.114) limit the quarters and the place for one's activity (disividisana niyama), preach abstention from unprofitable enjoyment (anatthadandassa vajjanam) and further restrict one's enjoyment of consumable things (uvabhogaparimanam). The four disciplinary vows are: contemplation of the self (samaiyam), observance of fast, religious study and contemplation (uvavasa posaha), right distribution of alms (atihisamvibhaga) and 1. Ch. 11.2-4. See Finasahasranama, p. 38. 31
482 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM peaceful self-mortification (samahimaranam 14.115) or (samlekhana 63.49). As regards the division of 12 vratas into two classes i. e. five anuvratas and seven siksapadas, the Jaina canonical work namely, the Uvasagadasao agrees with the Paumacariyam (Pancanuvvaiyam sattasikkhavaiyam duvalasaviham gihiddammam 1. 13). But the 'disividisa' i. e. the first gunavrata of the Paumacariya is bifurcated and mentioned as the first and the fifth 'Siksapadas (in the Uvasagadasao (disivaya & desavagasiya 1.50 & 54) while the fourth 'siksapada' vrata of the Paumacariya is not included in the 12 'siksapadas' but is mentioned separately as a supplementary vow (1.57). The 'atithisamvibhaga' of the Paumacariya is called as 'ahasamvibhaga-yathasamvibhaga' in the Uvasagadasao (1.56). The Ovavaiyasutta (34) follows Uvasagadasao. It further divides the seven latter vows into the three 'gunavratas' and four 'Siksapadas2. This scheme is followed by the Sravakaprajnapti (280-328, 378), Yogas astra of Hemacandra (3.1,4,74,23-87) with some differences in arrangement of the Gunavratas and Siksavratas The Ratnakaranda Sravakacara (65, 91, 122) follows Ovavaiyasutta. It mentions 'vaiyyavrtya' in place of 'atihisamvibhaga". The Caritrapahuda of Kundakunda (24-25) and the Bhavasangraha of Devasena1 (354-355) agree with the Paumacariya in the arrangement of the 'gunavratas' and 'siksapadas". The Adipurana of Jinasena (10.65-66) divides 'disividisi' of the Paumacariya into two separate vows and then mentions the 'bhogopabhogavrata' as the fourth 'gunavrata' while the four 'Siksapadas' are in agreement with the Paumacariya The Tattvarthasutra (Dig. 7.21-22; Svet. 7.16.17) does not mention the latter seven 'vratas' as either seven 'siksapadas' or three 'gunavratas' and four 'liksapadas'. Further it mentions 'dik, desa and anarthadanda' as the first three i. e. they can be taken as three 'gunavratas' (see the Sarvarthasiddhi). The Samlekhana is not included in the 12 vratas. It is mentioned separately. The Yasastilaka of Somadeva, Caritrasara (p. 8 MPJG 1974) of Camundaraya and the Dharmapariksa of Amitagati follow Tattvarthasutra2. Here the vow of 'atithisamvibhaga" i. e. offering of gifts deserves a detailed treatment because the Paumacariyam deals with it at various places in details and makes some pertinent observations. The Paumacariya mentions that gifts i. e. of ahara (food), abhaya (protection), nana 1. It mentions 'Devatthuvai' for 'Samayika'. 2. See Jaina Acaryon ka Sasanabheda, p. 49.
ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 483 (knowledge 32.68-69) and osaha (medicine 14.41 should be offered. These are considered to be the best objects of gifts. The gifts of cows, girls, land and gold (goitthibhumidanam suvannadanam 14,50) are mentioned as the cause of transmigration hence neither one should offer nor any monk should accept these things. This prohibition is quite against the practice of the Brahmanical religion, because Manu (4.230-231) extols the gifts of land, gold, silver and cow. The Padmapurana also (Brahmakhanda, Ch 24) highly recommends these gifts and lays down that (24.22) by offering a girl adorned with ornaments to a Brahmin one gets liberated from rebirth. This practice is found prevalent among the kings devoted to the Brahmanical faith. Ksatrapa Rsabhadatta (Select Inscriptions, I. p. 161) is said to have endowed gifts of gold, women, cows, and village to the Brahmins. Some necessary conditions are attached offering to gifts. The Paumacariyam reveals that the alms should be offered with faithfulness, in accordance with one's capacity, and with devotion and awareness (Saddhasattibhattivinnanenam 102.135). The gifts offered with these carefulnesses bring about prosperity and happiness. The gifts are said to be of two kinds in relation to two types of receivers i.e. the right person and the wrong person (supattadanam and apattadanam 102.133). The right persons are those who observe five Mahavratas, engage themselves in studies and meditation, perform austerities and are detached from wealth and worldly ties (102.134). Thus the Jaina monks are the right persons who deserve gifts (14.38.39). The wrong persons are those who are devoid of self control, infatuated by attachment and aversion (102.137). So the people of wrong faith engaged in injurious activities and immersed in sensual enjoyments do not deserve alms (14.42, 45) because the gifts given to wrong persons bring about subhuman existence and miseries (3.44) to the offerer. Therefore such gods who hold various weapons, who entertain passions, who have lust and attachment, who take delight in adorning their bodies, who have not crossed the world over and who pretend to liberate others are not fit for receiving any gift (14.61-62). Only the Vitaragas e.g. those who have destroyed the passions of attachment and aversion and who are free from all sorts of blemishes are worthy to receive alms (14.64), because the gifts offered to right persons are fruitful (102.135). Besides the above vows, the Paumacariya mentions that a householder should abstain from taking food at night and from using honey, meat and wine (raibhoyanavirai mahumamsasuravivajjanam 14.116), because their use leads one to hell (103.28). The taking of food
484 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMAGARIYAM at night is often criticised because it brings about many-fold miseries in the next world (32.70; 14.137-148). Once it is said that abstinence from taking food at night forms the sixth lesser vow of householder's conduct (anuvvaya panca........chattham ca raibhattam 6.120). Not only food but even the taking of water at night is not advised (amayam pi na payavvam bcadda tume kim puno saliam 103.24). It is said that taking meal at night is just like devouring flies, worms and moths (103.25). The Sarvarthasiddhi (7.1) and Rajavartika (7.1), quote it as being regarded by some as sixth 'anuvrata'. The Caritrasara of Camundaraya and the Acarasara (5.70) of Viranandi mention the abstinence from taking food at night as the sixth Anuvrata of a houeholder's conduct. But the Yogasastra (3.6) of Hemacandra puts it under the 'bhogopabhogaparimana', i.e. the second 'gunavrata'. The Upasakacara (5.1) of Amitagati and the Sagaradharmamrta (2.18) of Asadhara include it among the Mulagunas. According to the Sravakacara (4) of Vasunandi and the Ratnakarandasravakacara (142) it is prescribed to be observed at the time of holding the sixth 'pratima' i.e. the sixth stage of householder's dharma which comes after 12 vratas (as described above), which are to be observed during the second 'pratima' stage. It has been already mentioned, that the Paumacariya prohibits even the taking of water at night. The Caritrasara of Camundaraya prohibits it but the Acarasara of Viranandi prohibits food only, not water (sarvathannannivrtestatproktam sasthamanuvratam 5.70). Taking meat is similary criticised (14.47-49, 116;22.83-89) because it entails the killing of living beings (26.35) as it is not the product of trees or it does not grow on land (26.39) and killing is the negation of 'ahimsa', which is the very basis of the Jaina conduct (havai ahimsa mulam dhammassa 26.62). Thus the prohibition of taking honey. meat and liquor as mentioned in the Paumacariyam is corroborated by other Jaina works. These three abstinences have been included among the eight mulagunas' of householders conduct (the other five being the five anuvratas) by the Ratnakaranda Sravakacara (66), (the other five being the five udumbaras, fig-tree fruits) by Yasastilaka (1. 327), Bhavasamgraha (356) and the Sagaradharmamrta (2. 2-3). The Yogasastra (3. 6) and the Ratnakarandasravakacara (84) mention the above three abstinences under the 'bhogopabhogaparimana'-guna-vrata. The Sravakacara (70-87) of Vasunandi puts them under the first stage (pratima) of the householder's conduct,