3.1. Jain philosophy in ancient India

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS SECTION 3. PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION A. Philosophy. 475 The PC is mainly a narrative work but religious elements are predominant in it. At several places monks have been introduced giving discourses on Jaina philosophy and religion. We do not find any such information about other philosophies. Lord Mahavira's sermon to king Srenika (2.37-98) on the Vipulagiri, Muni Anantavirya's (Ch. 14) and Muni Sakalabhusana's (102.58-196) discourses to Ravana and Rama respectively are the particular occasions in the Paumacariya when the doctrines of Jaina philosophy are explained in brief. Then Lord Rsabha's sermon (4.23) and the discourses of a monk to Taditkesa of Lanka (6.118), of Anantavirya to Ravana (Ch. 14), of another monk to the exiled king Saudasa (22.80), of monk Dyuti to Bharata (32.57), of another monk to king Vajrakarna of Dasapura (33.29) and of Muni Sarvagupta to Rama (Ch. 102) are the occasions when the Jaina ethics have been dealt with. Besides that, we find that references to religious terms of Jainism are spread over at several places. Here we shall give a brief account of the doctrines of Jaina philosophy and Jaina ethics which are well-established and well-known. The points which differ from the established things will be given a special treatment. Then we shall deal with the ascetic life, rituals and popular worship as revealed in the Paumacariya Six Substances :- The Jaina Philosaphy: substance (Dravya Davvam duviham 2.62) is of two kinds-Jiva and Ajiva (Jivajiva) i. e. living or conscious or soul and non-living or unconscious or non-soul. Ajiva is further said to be of five kinds e. g. Dharma-the fulcrum of Motion, Adharma-the fulcrum of Rest, Akasa-the space, Kala-the Time and Pudgal the Matter (Dhammadhammagasam kalo jivo ya poggalena samam 102.99). Thus the substance is of six kinds (davvam chabbheyam 102.99). The distinction between the first four kinds of Ajiva and the fifth kind of Ajiva is well brought out in the Tattvartha-sutra (5.4) which mentions that Pudgala possesses form while the rest of the non-living substances as well as the Jiva are formless (5.3,28). Jiva or Soul:-The fundamental characteristic of Jiva is said to be Upayoga consisting of Jnana and Darsana (Jivanam taha damsanam 102.96) i.e. knowledge and awareness or intuition (determinate and indeterminate knowledge¹). Jnana and Darsana are further 1, She Outlines of Jaina Philosphy 30.

476 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM said to be of eight and four kinds respectively (nanam atthaviyappam cauvviham damsanm 102.96). They can be accounted as follows': The eight kinds of knowledge are Matijnana (sensory knowledge), Srutajnana (scriptural knowledge), Avadhijnana (limited direct knowledge or clairvoyance), Manahparyayajnana (direct knowledge of other's mind or telepathy), Kevalajnana (perfect knowledge or omniscience), Matiajnana (sensory-wrong-knowledge), Srutajnana (scriptural-wrong-knowledge) and Avadhi-ajnana (limited-direct-wrongknowledge or Vibhanga-jnana). 'The four kinds of intuition are: Caksurdarsana (visual intuition), Acaksurdarsana (non-visual intution), Avadhidarsana (limited-direct intuition) and Kevaladarsana (perfect intuition). Classification of Jivas:-Souls (Jivas) are said to be of two kinds i.e. the liberated and the worldly souls (Siddhas & Samsaravantas 2.62). The worldly souls or living beings are of two kinds i.e. those who are destined to get liberated and those who would never be liberated (bhavva & abhavva 2.66; 30.40). Again the worldly souls. are classified as mobile and immobile (tasa & thavara 2.64), then the both as complete or developed to the full and incomplete or undeveloped (pajjatta=paryapta & apajjatta-aparyapta 2.64). The immobile beings are of two kinds i.e. the subtle and the gross (suhuma suksma & bayara = badara 102.95). The immobile beings are again of five types i.e. the earth, water, fire, air and vegetable bodies (pudhavijalajalanamaruya vanassai 2.65). They are all onesensed (102.94). Then there are two (touch, taste), three (touch, taste, smell), four (touch, taste, smell, sight), and five-sensed (touch, taste, smell, sight & hearing) beings (102. 94). The one-sensed beings are immobile and the others are mobile. The mobile beings are again of two kinds i. e. rational and non-rational or possessed of mind and not possessed of mind (duvihatasa sanni iyare ya 2. 65).* According to the state of their existence the living beings are of four kinds i. e. infernal, subhuman, human and celestial (caugai 2. 95- 1. See Tattvartha-sutra, 1.9, 32 (Bhasya 2.9) & Niyama, 10-14. 2. A newly born mundane soul is incomplete but it has the capacity to become complete in respect of assimilation (ahara), body (sarira). sense organ (indriya), respiration (panapana), speech (bhasa) and mind (manas). Those who develop these six-fold capacities are called paryaptas and those who die before developing them are known as aparyaptas--The Jaina Religion and Literature. Vol. I. Pt. pp. 86-88. 3. The Tattvartha-sutra (2. 25) explains that the human, infernal, celestial and some of the subhuman beings i. e. those who possess five senses are possessed of mind while the rest of the beings are devoid of mind.

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 477 naraya, tirikkha, manusa & deva 2. 89-92). In relation to their birth they are of three kinds¹, viz. uterine, instantaneous and spontaneous. The first kind of living beings are born of the womb by the union of a male and a female, the second ones are the celestial and hellish beings who rise instantaneously and form the fluid body and the third ones are those who are produced by coagulation like cells (Gabbhaya.. Suranarayauvavaya...................... Sammucchima 102.97). The uterine beings are further of three kinds viz. those who are born from egg are called incubatory, those who get born in a flesh envelope or yolk sack just as a human child are termed as umbilical and those whose birth is without any sack or shell just as a cub of a lion or a kitten are called unumbilical (andauyapoyauyajarauya gabbhaja 102.97). Pudgala or Matter:-The very etymological meaning of 'pudgala' differentiates it from other non-living substances. 'Pud' means to combine and 'gala' means to dissociate. Therefore 'Pudgala (is that substance which undergoes modifications by combinations and dissociations. The Paumacariya³ further categorically refers to five kinds of material bodies viz. audarika, vaikriya, aharaka, taijasa and karmana. They are said to be successively subtler in form. Their details can be known from elsewhere.4 2 Nine-Principles:-The Paumacariya at 102. 181 refers categorically to the nine principles (Jivaiyana navapayatthanam), and at other places the individual principles such as Jiva, Ajiva, Punya (75. 19), Papa (31. 26), Bandha (14. 9), Nirjara (14.11) and Moksa (14. 9) are referred to. The remaining principle is the Asrava.5 These are the different conditions of Jiva bound with Pudgala. They denote the connection of soul with matter i. e. the way in which a soul is kept bound to the matter and the way it dissociates from matter and is completely liberated. This is the ethical classification of Padartha.6 Moksa (5.41) is variously called as Siddhi (5.53), Sivam (5.167) and Nirvana (14.120). It is the pure state of a soul (arayaviraya vimala 6.146) which has no blemishes. There is no obstruction (avvabaha 5.250), no decay, no death (ajaramaranirayam 103.134), 1. See Tattvartha-sutra, 2. 32-34. 2. See Jain Philosophy & Modern Science, p. 44. 3. Oraliyam viuvvam aharam tejasam ca kammaiyam/ Suhumam paramparae gunehi sampajjai sariram// 102. 98. See also Tattvartha-sutra, 2. 37-38. Outlines of Jaina Philosophy, p. 78. 4. 5. See Uttara, 28.14; Sthananga, 665. 6. For details see Tattvartha-sutra, 6.1-4; 9.1-3 & 10.1.

478 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM no misery or pain (dhuyakilesa 21.64; dukkha vimokkham 4.55) and there is infinite bliss (ananta sokkhamm 2.83) which is never exhaustible (akkhayam 2.94), is ever lasting (anantakalam 14.100), is never shakable and is unparalleled (sivamayalamanuttaram 5.167). Doctrine of Karma :-The Paumacariya reveals that it is due to the Karmas that a soul wanders in transmigration. These Karmas are said to be of eight kinds (atthavihakammabaddho jivo paribhamai 14.10; 9.8; 21.59; 75.45) of which Vedaniya (14.10) and Mohaniya (14.99) are mentioned. The Tattvartha-sutra (8.5) mentions them as follows: (1) knowledge obscuring (jnanavarana), (2) intuition or conation or awareness obscuring (darsanavarana), (3) feeling producing (vedaniya), (4) belief and conduct obscuring (mohaniya), (5) age determining (ayu), (6) personality determining (nama), (7) status determining (gotra) and (8) power hindering (antaraya). The Paumacariya mentions that by the destruction of 'ghati' karmas one obtains perfect knowledge (Kevala jnana 4,17) i. e. omniscience. The 'ghati' Karmas are Jnanavaraniya, Darsanavaraniya, Monaniya and Antaraya (See Tattvartha-sutra, 10.1). At 2.30 the Paumacariya mentions that by the destruction of all the eight kinds of Karmas Lord Mahavira attained Kevala (aha attha-kammarhiyassa ..kevalananam samuppannam). It seems to be a scribe's error because the Jaisalmer manuscript reads as 'atthaddhakammarahiyassa'. Here it will be worthwhile to record that the Paumacariya (2.82) categorically mentions 'Visam Jina karanaim' i. e. twenty factors or twenty kinds of religious practices which result in earning the 'gotra' of Jinanood. Their details can be known from the Nayadhammakahao (VIII.69). The Tattvartha-sutra (6.23) mentions their number as sixteen only. The Path to Emancipation or Ratnatraya :-The Paumacariya mentions that right faith, right knowledge, right conduct and austerities lead to emancipation (damsanananacaritte. suddha......... siddhim paventi dhuyakamma 2.93; carittananadamsanavisuddhasammattaladdhamahappo kauna tavamuyaram sivamayalamanuttaram patto 6.155; see Uttara, 28.2-3; Tattvartha-sutra, 1.1). Austerities should be included in the right. conduct. Right belief is characterised as faith in the nine principles (already mentioned -102-8). It is devoid of belief in heretic doctrines and is free from the defects of doubt etc. (loiyasuisu rahio & samkai dosarahio 102.181, 182). The other defects which are not mentioned. in the Paumacariya are the desire for sense pleasures, feeling of disgust, thinking admiringly of wrong believers and praising them (See Tattvartha-sutra, 1.2; 7.18 & Uttra, 28.14-15). Right knowledge is the knowledge of the nine principles. It is said in the Paumacariya that the fundamental six substances (i.e.

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIGUS CONDITIONS 479 davvam chabbheyam) are sattabhangajuyam (102.99), i.e. the true knowledge in all its aspects can be acquired by the method of SaptaIt is a bhangi. It is a method of describing a thing in seven ways. reference to the Syadvada, the theory of relative judgement or conditional predicament.¹ Lastly right conduct including the austerities will be dealt further under 'Jaina ethics'. Here it is necessary to make it clear that right faith, right knowledge and right conduct along with austerities are all necessary in a combined form for attaining emancipation and for that they have been mentioned together in the Paumacariyam and not separately. No one separated from any other three essentials can help to realize Moksa. The Uttaradhyayana (28.30) emphasises that without faith there is no knowledge, without knowledge there is no conduct, without conduct there is no emancipation, Thus all the three are interdependent and co-related and they are jointly indispensable for one to attain Moksa.