2.1. State and King in ancient India

SECTION 2. POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION A. State and King. State is denoted by rajja = rajyam (32.26). The constituent elements of the state mentioned in the Paumacariya are : King (raya 3.2), Ministers (mantijana 38.59 or amacca 5.176). Territory, Forces, Fort, Treasury (visaya, sahana or bala 7.13, pura & kosa 23.16; 33.81) and Friend or Ally (mitta 7.13). These seven features are considered as the essential components of a state in the works on the Hindu Polity (Kautilya's Arthashastra 6.1.1; Manu, 9.294). King King is variously called as Raya = Raja (27,6), one who illuminates or shines; Sami=Swamin (37.21), Naha-Natha (71.1), the commanding authority; Puhaipala-Prthvipala (5.50), Bhumipala (12.144), Mahivala Mahipala (11.2), Patthiva-Parthiva (38.6), the terrestrial lord; Narinda = Narendra (38.25), Naravara (5.50), Naravasaha=Naravrsabha (38.9), the best among the men; Niva-Nrpa (27.9), the protector of lhe people, Narahiva-Naradhipa (5.48), Naravai= Narapati (27.10), the lord of the people; Pahu=Prabhu (33.101), Deva (102.42), and Paramesara-Paramesvara (61.3), the divine lord. The last epithet of king connects him with divine qualities and indicates his divine right over the state. Manu (7.3-8) observes that a king is created by God and he should not, though even a boy, be disrespected.

456 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM ' Queen: -The Paumacariya reveals that generally kings used to have many wives. Out of them some were granted special privileges. They were called chief queens (Agramahisis 91.10 or Mahadevis 91.13,18). Dasaratha had three, Rama had four while Laksmana had eight such queens. Ravana had only one chief queen, Mandodari (8.24). On the occasion of the coronation of Rama and Laksmana, one of their chief queens namely, Sita and Visalya respectively (85.22,23) were also consecrated. Thus they were specially privileged and so they can be called as prime among the chief queens. But the Paumacariya does not refer to any special distinction bestowed on them. The instance of queen Simhika who was entrusted with the administration of the kingdom when her husband, king Naghusa went out on war-campaign indicates that a queen shared the responsibility of rulership (22.57). Polygamy was generally prevalent among kings but there are instances of kings having one wife only¹. Occasional rivalry and jealousy among the queens were common². In exceptional cases as found in the Paumacariya, some king did not consider it immoral to make abandoned wife of another person as his queen (75.75) or to kidnap and make the queen of another king as his chief queen (105.95). Ravana also was ready to make Sita his chief queen (46.41). King's Paraphernalia:-The majestic paraphernalia of a king consisted of the following insignias or emblems: a crown (Mukuta 85.21); a throne (Vistara 80.7 or Simhasana 65.36); a parasol (Chatra 89.0: or Atapatra 24.31); a pair of fly-whisks (Camarayugala 12.142); a pair of sandalas (Padukas 80.8); and a foot-stool (Padapitha 3.1). The assembly hall (Sabha 23.1 or Asthanamandapa 33.99) was always associated with him. Then there were the ladies who fanned the flywhisks (Camaragrahini 68.39), the panegyrists or bards (Vandijana 2.103; 85.24), the door-keeper (Pratihara 13.1) etc. King's Education:-Knowledge of warfare and training in military or archery (25.24) were indispensable for a king. He was required to be well-versed in statecraft (nayavihinnu 8.142; niikusala 6.12), allied subjects of rulership (narindavinnanananamahappam 2.19, various arts and traditional learnings (vivihakalagamakusalo 2.20; 18.56). The art of music, dance and drama was well cultivated by kings (9.88.89; 39.21; 28,46; 113.11). They were trained in subduing agitated 1, See Supra, Position of women. 2. Ibid.

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 457 elephants (8.178;218) and turbulent horses (28.27). Capturing of wild elephants was also practised by some kings (94.103). Personal Qualities:-A king was required to belong to 'uttamakula' (6.18; 9.26) and to have superior qualities (naravaigunehi jutto 2.15). He was required to possess robust health (2.16,17), strength bala 6.221, sakti 28.127) and majesty (pratapa 7.170). Self confidence (darpa 6,221), courage and qualities of goodness (virya & sattva 7.170) were considered to be indispensable for a king. He was required to have modesty (vinaya 3.7; 9.26) and to be virtuous in his thought and deeds (dharmabuddhi 65.1). He was considered to be the root of morality (marayada 53.4). A good king is said to be one who has a flawless character, who is affectionate to the people (uttamapii 9.26), helpful and beneficial to his servants and relations (bhiccana bandhavana uvayaraparo). He should worship all sorts of religious persons (sahuna devaguru-puyanaparo). He should be devoted to the religious duties (dhammuvagaranesu sahino). He should consider other's wife as his mother and other's wealth as grass (7.60-62). Duties: The Paumacariya mentions that a king should treat his subjects as his children (janavacchala 27.11) and see to their utmost welfare (uvayara 3.7). The protecting of the people was the fundamental duty (3.115) of a Ksatriya, The Sukraniti (14) observes that one who can protect men, who is valorous, restrained and powerful and who is the chastiser of the wicked is called a Ksatriya i.e. a person capable of ruling over others. Hospitality: The Paumacariya reveals that on various occasions kings made munificent grants of land to learned persons (77.88; 88.26), their friends (12.12) and well-wishers (88.21,34). Similarly they granted gifts of wealth to several persons¹. Amusements: Hunting (33.30) was one of the common four addictions of a king. The other three are mentioned in the Arthasastra (8.3.42) as the gambling, drinking and association with women. Happy bath in accompaniment of the ladies of the harem (69.9-10) was one of the common entertainments of kings. Kings generrally sported with their wives in gardens (6.100; 86.34), enjoyed watersports in reservoirs (5.218) and rivers (10.35; 42.17). 1. See Supra, 'Ksatriya' under 'Castes'.

458 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Music was frequently displayed to please a king when he got up from the bed (2.103; 15.80; 64.5) or took bath (69.9) or did any other work. Subduing of turbulent elephants (8.176) or horses (28.27-28) and riding on elephants (76.11) and horses (5.73;116.3) were common sports of kings. Heir: Generally the eldest son of a king became Yuvaraja and he became king after the death of his father. If a king abdicated the throne by renouncing the world, his eldest son became the natural heir to the throne (6. 58; 31. 56). The hereditary kingship was so important that Iksvaku king Kirtidhara could not renounce the world until a son was born to him (21. 88). Sometimes a child in the womb was declared heir and his father renounced the world (22. 21). If the eldest brother renounced the world and he happened to be issueless, then his younger brother became king (21. 42, 77). Bharata, Ayodhya in fulfilment When Rama returned made Laksmana, the Sometimes an younger brother became a king. younger brother of Rama was made the king of of the boon promised to Kaikeyi by Dasaratha. from exile he did not accept the crown but he king of Ayodhya (85. 14). Adityaraja made his first son, Vali as the king of Kiskindhipura and his second son Sugriva as Yuvaraja (9.6). When king Vali renounced the world, he appointed his younger brother Sugriva as the king of Kiskindhipura (9. 6; 9. 45) though he had a son (47. 23). Similarly Maharaksasa appointed his first son as king and the third son as Yuvaraja (5 166. 240). King Balikhilya was kidnapped by the Mlecchas. He had no son. A daughter Kalyanamala was born to him. With the help of the ministers she lived in the disguise of a male and was appointed as the king (34. 18-23). It indicates that princesses did not enjoy the right of heirship to the throne. There are instances of several princes who on attaining youth did not deem it fit that their father should go to war, so they themselves fought battles (16. 31; 19. 9; 27. 17, 21; 59. 45; 86. 50, 51). It reveals that princes suitably helped their father king in discharging their duties. Generally a king ruled for the whole of his life. But if he was tyrranous then the subjects revolted against him. They dethroned and banished him, and appointed his son the ruler 2 (22. 75). 1. Among the Western Ksatrapas the crown passed from the elder brother to the younger brother in succession. Vide VG A, pp. 47 & 249. 2. See also Khandahala futaka No. 542. Vide Political History of Ancient India, 176 (1950).

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 459 The Paumacariya reveals that sometimes if a king died issueless, some divine method was used to selcct his heir¹. When the king of Mahapura died issueless an elephant was released. He selected He king Saudasa who was dethroned and exiled from Ayodhya. was installed as the king of Mahapura (22.91). When Laksmana became the king of Ayodhya, his brother Satrughna was granted the rulership of Mathura (Ch 86). It indicates that younger brother of a king were appropriateiy granted some towns or lands. Consecration Ceremony -It is a called 'rajjabhiseya = rajyabhiseka (80.17) or Pattabandha' (5.41). The latter term indicates the practice of binding of a royal turban which was an emblem of sovereignty. The work of consecration was assigned to the ministers (19.5). The Purohita (31.57), Samantas (31.50) and the Vassal king (85,16) also played an important part in it. The occasion was celebrated with the performances of music (19.5; 85.18) and dance (85.19). Bards sang panegyrics (85.20). Sacred water brought from sacred places was sprinkled over the body of the installing king (85.20). His body was besmeared with sandal paste and was decorated with ornaments and garlands (85.21). Chief queen was also consecrated on this occasion (85.22, 23). Or when some one of the queens was made the chief queen she was also duly consecrated (abhiseyapattabandham.........paviya 105.95)2. Types of Rulers: The Paumacariya refers to the following types of rulers :Cakravartin: It is stated that Cakravartin Bharata enjoyed Suzerainty over 32,000 kings (4.58). He governed the whole of India (Samatta Bharahahivo 5.118) and his rule was 'egachattam' i, e. one umbrella and one ruler (4.56). He was saluted by all the kings under him (anapanama 4.38). Thus a Cakravartin was a paramount king whose authority was recognised by all the other rulers of the country. The Tiloyapannatti corroborates it (1.48). It can be compared with 'Sarvabhauma' the in described 1. of type king the See also Darimukha Jataka No. 378; Devendragani's Commentary on dhyayana 3. p. 63a; Karakandacariu, 2. 20. Sukraniti Uttara 2. Pattabandha is called as Usnisapatta also. It was a golden band wrapped over the turban of a king. Heir-apparent, queen or armychief also were authorised to wear such royal bands. Mahadevi-patta is also mentioned -Harsacarita eka Simskrtika Adhyayana, p: 155. See also Varahi Vrhat Samhita (49. 2.4) which mentions five kinds of Pattas.

460 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM (1.185). He is described as the Soverign of all the seven continents of the world. It seems to be a developed form of the status of a Cakravartin when all the seven continents were included into his territory. Ardhacakravartin :-According to the definition of an Ardhacakravartin given in the Tiloyapannatti (1.48), Laksmana and Ravana of the Paumacariya (91.28, 29; 44.9 & 7.170) who reigned the three divisions of Bharatavarsa and were suzerain over 16000 rulers, would be called as Ardhacarkavartin. Mandalika :-The Paumacariya merely refers to him (14.22). The Tiloyapannatti (1.46) defines him as the Lord of 4,000 rulers. He is higher in status to that of a Maharaja. But the Suhraniti (1.183) asigns him a lower status than that of a Maharaja. It further mentions that his revenue amounted between 4 to 10 lakh of silver Karsapanas. Maharaja -King Ativirya of Nandyavartapura (373) and Bhamandala of Rathanupura (99.63) are mentioned as Maharajas to whom tributes were paid by many other rulers. The Tiloyapannatti (1.45) defines a Maharaja as the Lord of 1000 rulers and the Sukraniti (1.184) fixes his revenue between 21 to 50 lac. Samanta :-Samantas are seen in the Paumacariya in different lights. Srenika, sovereign king of Magadha (Magahasamanto 2.49) and an independent Vidyadhara king of Meghapura (Vijjaharasamanto 6.2) are called Samantas. Then it is said that various Samantas bowed down to the feet of king Srenika (3.1). Similarly Bharata, Rama's brother (38.14) and Kiskindharaja (6.213) are said to be receiving tributes from many other kings. Here Samantas seem to be feudatories. Further Samantas are told to be accompanying their overlord wherever he went (38.10; 38.51). They helped him with their forces (37.5). They fought for him (59.11). They were consulted on the occasion of the consecration ceremony of his son (31.50). They were entrusted with the mission of envoys (duta 64. 11) and were given responsible posts in military (26.29). These duties of the Samantas denote that they were dependents and served their ovorlords. The Sukraniti defines Samanta as follows. A Samanta was a ruler whose revenue ranged from 1 to 3 lac of silver coins (1.182) or he was the chief who had 100 villages under him (1.190). Those who were the servants of king and were granted some land and were like the above Samantas were called Anusamantas (1.188). One who was made the headman or chief officer of 100 villages was called an Anusamanta (1.190). Those who were Samantas but were deprived of their status were called Hinasamantas (1.189). Thus the term Samanta means a

ECONOMIC, POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 461 sub-ruler or a feudal lord or a headman of some village or a chief officer with some land under him. Thus the Samantas can be called as vassals and feudatories, but the Paumacariya calls Srenika, historically known as a sovereign ruler, a Samanta. some other states were Tributary kings:-Sometimes king of conquered by a powerful king but their territories were not usurped. They were reinstalled as kings of their respective states. They are called Bhiccas Bhrtyas (11.19;33.25; 33.124;37.19;37.64;45.2;46.95;54. 41). Such type of kings were autonomous. The idea was to impose the authority (anaviya 12.144 =anamita or ajnapita) of the powerful king and the conqueror over the weaker ones. They were required to pay trubutes to their overlord (37.19) in recognition of his suzerainty over them. If any body violated the authority, he was punished (33.62,80). In their own states they were free to govern their lands as they liked. At the time of the coronation of the imperial lord overlord, the titles of the tributary kings were renewed and they were recognised as king of their respective territories (82.25).