2. Castes: Origin, Duties, Occupation and Position

Origin of Castes:—Varna and Jati (class and caste) meant the same thing to our author.¹ It was divided on the basis of labour. The Paumacariya mentions that those who were strong and powerful, were appointed by Rsabha to protect the people and were called as 'Khattiyas' (3. 115). Those who took to the profession of trade, agriculture and animalhusbandry came to be known as 'Vaisas' (3. 116) and those who performed menial work and served others were known as 'Suddas' (3. 117). He taught the science of statecraft (rayanii) to the Samantas, Bhatas, Purohitas, Senapatis, Sresthins and the Bhogikas further imparted to the people instructions in secular knowledge (logassa vi logasambandham 3. 121). Thus we find that the Ksatriyas are given the first place in the society and the Brahmanas have been left out here altogether. These accounts of sciences and arts are corroborated by the Jambudivapannatti (Su. 30) and the Kalpasutra (209-10). The Adipurana states that Rsabha was Yugadi Brahma (3.119) and his era came to be known as Krtayuga. It relates that Rsbha enunciated six professions 2 of Asi (sword), Masi (writing), Krsi (agriculture), Vidya (science), Vanijya (trade) and Silpa (arts). On account of these professions which involved labour, the 'Bhogabhumi' of Bharatavarsa came known as 'Karmabhumi³. to be Brahmanas:-The Paumacariya (4.65-84) relates that once Bharata, the first son of Rsabhadeva honoured the lay votaries who were righteous and drew (three) lines on their bodies with the Kakiniratna to distinguish them from the pretenders. But as soon as he came to learn that the persons honoured by him would pretend in future and preach animal-sacrifices, he punished them and turned them out of his city. These victims took refuge under Rsabha, The latter prevented Bharata from beating them declaring 'ma hanasu putta ee'. Therefore, they came to be known as 'Mahanas' (Brahmanas). This is a fanciful account of the origin of the Brahmanas upon the capricious etymology of the word 'Mahana' which in reality. is only the Parkrit form of 'Brahman'. 1. Jaina ya uppatti 1. 38; Uannana samuppatti tinham pi suya-4. 65 & Cauvannam ca janam apuccheuna niggao Ramo-31. 103. 2. Adipurana, 16.179. 3. Ibid, 16.146.249. 21

322 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Other Jaina works except the Paumacariya (4.92-122) do not support this origination of the 'mahana' class. They mention that those who were righteous were called 'Mahanas' because they did not cause 'himsa' (injury) to any living being and kept themselves engaged in studying the sacred scriptures. Jinasena (Adipurana, 16.243f) has further associated the origin of the four Varnas with the limbs of the Adi-Jina. He mentions that Rsabhadeva himself took up weapons in his arms and trained the people in wielding them, hence they (Ksatriyas) were called as created by his arms. He taught the people how to travel by thighs for earning livelihood by trade, hence they (Vanijakas) came to be known as created from his thighs. He taught with his own feet how the people should serve others therefore they (Sudras) were said to be created from his feet. Then the Brahmanas were taught with the mouth of Bharata how to study, teach and perform rituals, hence they were known to be created by mouth. This account reminds us of the Brahmanical theory of the origin of four Varnas. It is a rational attempt to explain the theory that refers to the divine origin of the four Varnas. The Purusasukta of the Rgveda mentions that the Brahmanas were the mouth, the Rajanyas the arms, the Vaisyas the thighs and the Sudras were the feet of Prajapati or Brahma (10. 7.90). The same theory is echoed in the later Brahamanical works which state that the four Varnas are born from the respective parts of the body of Brahma. 2 Duties: The Paumacariya (4.65; 11.39,98) refers to the Brahmanas as 'suttakanthas'. That is to say they were recognised by the thread they used to wear. It was a mark of their distinction (Manu, 2.63). The Paumacariya categorically mentions their six-fold duties (chakkammaraya 105.21). These duties are referred to by Manu, (10.75-76) as study, sacrificing, offering of gifts, teaching, officiating at sacrifice and accepting of alms. Various references in the Paumacariya indicate that these duties were being duly performed by them. The Paumacariya referes to the Brahmanas as leearned in the Vedas (82. 45) and their auxiliaries (sangovange Vee), as the followers of the Vedasruti (Veyasui 105. 80) and as the students of Aranyakas (sattham Arannayam 11.10). The study of religious scriptures was their main duty, but the study of secular subjects (loiyasui 58. 6) was not altogether neglected (savvakalagamakusalo 82, 86). Learned Brahmins are called Pandiyamani (105. 21), 1. See 'Origin of Brahmanas' under 'Intervewing Stories'. 2. Mahabharata (Santi), 296. 5-6; Valmiki Ramayana, 3. 14. 30; Manu, 1. 31; VnPu, 1.66.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 323 Batuka Kapila was a typical orthodox Brahmin. He used to bring fruits and sticks of wood (samiha) to perform daily scrifical rites. The sacred fire remained kindled in his house (aggihottagharam). He would daily go to the forest, bring the darbha bring the darbha grass, holding a Kamandalu in his hand¹. He would not allow improper persons to enter his house to avoid impurification of his residence (35.5.27). Two Vipra brothers, Indhana and Pallava are said to be devoted to the duty of accepting alms and offering gifts 'bhikkadanujjaya' (58. 5). Ksirakadamba is mentioned to be a teachar who taught the Aranyaka sastras (11. 8-9). Airakucchi was the teacher of the sons of Dasaratha (25. 18-24). Purohitas formed a distinct class among the Brahmins because of their duty, of officiating at sacrifices. They are referred to be descending to the hells on account of officiating at animal-sacrifices (purohiya homakaranujjutta 14. 16). Many Brahmins are mentioned to be vouchsafing and liberally taking part in the cermony of an animal sacrifice which was being performed by king Marutta (11. 47). Vimuci wandered from place to place for receiving alms (dakkhinakankhi 30. 63). Giribhuti and Gobhuti were favoured with gifts by a queen (55. 36). The above mentioned Batuka Kapila is a typical example of a greedy Brahmin (Ch. 37). Occupations and position :-The primary means of their livelihood were (bhikkha) begging-alms, receiving presents from kings and other persons when they officiated at sacrificial ceremonies. They also worked as counsellors to the kings. Hemanka was bestowed with gifts on account of his intelligent advice to the king (sampavio ya riddhi apegadanabhimanenam 77.80). Dasaratha offered valuable presents to the teacher of his sons and honoured him greatly (sammanadanavibhavena 25.36). Bhargava on account of his learning held a position of respect among the kings and became abundantly rich (dhanariddhisampautto savvanarinana aipujjo 77.83). They also held the eniviable position of royal priests (5.31;26.6;82.37;41.45;5.105). The learned Brahmins used to hold debates on religion with their opponents 1. Manu lays down that a Brahmin snataka should always keep with him a bamboo-staff, a Kamandalu of water, sacred thread, Vedas, golden earrings, a girdle and a deer-skin (4. 36; 2. 64),

324 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM (105.26). In the religious field the Brahmins are referred to as other Brahmin following Tapasadharma (Pingala 30.52; and one 5.30). Brahmaruci and his wife Kurmi are referred to have been leading the Tapasadharma in the forest (11.54). ´ The respectable position they held in the society can be inferred from such general remarks that even if they commit any guilt they should not be killed (35.15) and the noble persons never slay a Brahmin or a Sramana (65.30). Thus the Brahmins occupied an equal position with the Sramanas. But the Paumacariya criticises those Brahmins who bore deplorable conduct. It mentions that there was no paucity of pretending Brahmins who were really unchaste, sensuous and characterless (105.46). They injured living beings, acted contrary to the practice of a true ascetic and demonstrated undue pride. True Brahmins in the opinion of the author were those who devoted themselves to penances, who were of good conduct, who maintained. purity, who observed vows of forbearance and forgiveness, who did not give vent to the passions and stuck to the path of liberation (105.46-48). It indicates that those who led the life of renunciation, simplicity and high-thinking deserved to be called as Brahmins. not There are several instances to show that vices had crept into the life of the Brahmins. The reverence and the privileges which were granted to them by the Brahmanical Sutras and Smrtis were wholly enjoyed by them. The Paumacariya refers to the Brahmins committing murder and adultery with the wife of a grhapati (48.64), or with the woman of his own caste (30.61) or with the wife of an ambassador (39.42). Mrdumati was immodest, criminal, very cruel and was addicted to the vice of gambling. He attempted to commit burglary and used to keep company of courtezans (82.79,79). Purohita Satyavadi was expelled from the country on account of swindling the wealth of a merchant (5.34). A Vipra was, though on account of being betrayed by a queen, punished to the severity of mutilation of the limbs of his body (88.12). Rudrabhuti on account of committing theft was awarded the death penalty (34. 46). These examples sufficiently prove that they were not immune from proper punishments. In this light the injuction of the Brahmanical Sutras¹ that a Brahmin must not be subjected to corporal punishment, must not be imprisoned or fined or exiled or reviled or excluded, was not rigidly followed. The heckling of rude behaved Kapila by Laksmana (35. 13) and the beating of Brahmins by Ravana (11.90) belie the dictum that he who in anger 1. Gautama, 8. 12-13 Vide OGCI, Vol. I p. 158, and also Avadhyo Brahmano dandairiti sastravido viduh--Valmiki Ramayana, 7. 59 2. 34.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 325 raises his arm against a Brahmin, will be banished from heaven for a hundred years and he who strikes, for a thousand years.1 The orthodox Kapila's bowing down to Rama for gaining economic favour (35. 62) goes against the pronouncement that a Brahmin shall not rise from his seat to receive a Ksatriya or a Vaisya, however learned and superior he may be. The instances of the insulting of Brahmins by the public (105. 44), the plundering of the house of a Brahmin (30. 62), the kidnapping of the wife of a Brahmin by a king (26. 12) and the raping of a Brahmin girl by a king (103. 99) indicate that they occupied the same position as the average people did. Making allowance for a certain amount of exaggeration in these accounts, the stratum of truth at the base is obvious. 2 Ksatriyas: The Ksatriyas are called Rajaputras also. The Paumacariya mentions (89. 36) Satrughna as a 'rajaputra' (Sattuggha-rayaputtenam). The first and the foremost duty of the Ksatriyas was to govern and protect the people from internal disorder and external enemies (rakkhanakarananiutta 3.115). Manu (10.79) mentions that the wielding of arms was the means of their subsistence and their duty was to protect the people. The Adipurana 3 (16. 243) defines Ksatriyas as saviours and protectors of the wounded. There are several instances of Ksatriya kings who ruled over various parts of India, viz. Dasaratha of Saketa (22. 103), Janaka of Mithila (21. 33), Srenika of Magadha (2. 15) etc. The institution of punishment was controlled by them to maintain internal peace and order. There are a number of examples when kings are found to be punishing the criminals and breakers of law. They posseessed a large army to protect the people from external attacks There are (caturangabala 24. 28; 26. 29; 33.76; 37. 5 & 56. 1). several occasions when they defeated the Mlechas (27.40) or the notorious chief of a wild tribe (34. 44), or an oppressive king (33. 118), or the invaders (37. 60; 22.60) or imprisoned and chased. off the rebels (26. 29; 105. 92). Thus they were responsible for the destiny of the country and in exchange of their services they were entitled to get sixth part of the income of their subjects by way of tolls and taxes.5 4 According to the Brahmanical preaching as received in the Paumacariya (11.72) the Yajna was prescribed for three Varnas ie. the Brahmins, 1. Gautama, 21.17-20, Vide OGCI. 2. Apastamba, II 2. 4. 18 Vide OGCI, Vol. I p. 150. 3. Ksatatrane niyukta hi Ksatriyah sastrapanyah; See Raghu, 253 (Ksatatkila trayata ityudagrah ksatrayasya sabdo bhuvanesu rudhah). 4. See 'Punishment' under 'Polity and Administration'. 5. Valmiki Ramayana, 2.75.25; Manu, 7.131; 8.307-308.

326 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Ksatriyas and the Vaisyas. King Marutta of Rajagrha is stated to have been performing a great sacrifice (11.5). No other example of performing sacrifices by the kings are available. It is due to the fact that the Jainas never approved of these sacrifices. In its place the 'bali karma' offering of oblations (of corns and fruits) in the temples (7.157; 32.83) is mentioned, which was meant for all who followed the Jaina faith. The other duties of the Ksatriyas consisted of study, officiating at coronation ceremony and offering alms. Thus the Paumacariya reveals that the sons of Dasaratha (25.23-24) received instructions in archery and other sciences. References to the education of various other princes and princesses are not lacking, viz. Lavana and Ankusa (97.22), Desabhusana and Kulabhusana (39.88), Kaikeyi (24.4) and Atisundara (26.5). Kaikeyi (24.85) and Simhika (22.59) were well-trained in the art of warfare. As regards officiating at the coronationceremony it is said that on receiving orders form king Dasaratha many warriors attended upon Rama with golden pitchers to coronate him (26.14). Thereafter Rama and Laksmana were coronated by many kings (85.20) and Rama and Somitti (Laksmana) had formally coronated Bharata as the king of Saketa in the forest (32.53). The duty of offering of presents was duly performed by the kings and princes by favouring teachers, Brahmins and miserables with wealth (25.26; 58.7; 55.36; 33.86). Mahidhara gave presents to the person who brought him the news of the arrival of Laksmana (36.35). Rama favoured Ratnakesin with presents when the latter acquainted him with the whereabouts of the kidnapper of Sita (48.45). Raksasa kings (77.24), Vanara kings (7.19) and Vanara queens (49.14) also offered alms on happy occasions. Rulers' hospitality to guests was very liberal and thus we find that Rama was received and entertained with due respect during his exile-journey by Vajrakarna 33.91, by This Kalyanamala 34.12-13, and the king of Vamsasthalapura. hospitality was extended to householders (4.77) as well as to monks (4.12; 21.42; 115.197) and hermits (82.29). Thus we find that on account of beeing a ruling class they occupied the rank of the nobles and wielded power and wealth. The teachings of the monks prepared many royal persons to renounce the world and get intitiated in to the Jaina ascetic order for the upliftment of their spiritual life (Dasaratha 32. 27, Bharata 82, 5, Rama 114. 15, the sons of Laksmana 106.46, Ativirya 37. 68, Ratnaratha and Citraratha 39. 85, Indra 13-51, Kaikeyi 82. 12, Mandodari 75. 82, Sita 102. 49, Satrughna, Vibhisana, Sugriva

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 327 114.20 & many other queens 114. 22). Then there were others who became Tapasas viz, prince Anuddhara (39. 84) etc. Vaisyas: The Sanskrit Dictionary mentions that the word 'Vaisya' is derived from 'Vis'. 'Vis' means the people who settle on the soil and 'Vaisya' means the working man (A Sanskrit English Dictionary by Sir Monier Monier-Williams.). Thus the Vaisyas were the producers of wealth in various ways. On them depended the prosperity of the country. The Aryan society as a whole is called 'Vis' and their king as 'Visampati' in the Vedic literature (A Sanskrit English Dictionary by Sir Monier Monier-Williams.). Out of this universal society the other castes developed on account of their specialised pursuits (learning-Brahmana, arms-Ksatriya and service-Sudra). Thus the Vaisyas constituted the real society, the backbone of all the other three castes whose subsistence depended upon the wealth produced by the former class. Therefore, the Vaisya class becomes the most important one of all the four castes. The Paumacariya mentions that the Vaisyas consisted of the people who were engaged in the profession (vavaraparayana) of trade, agriculture, or cattle-breeding (vanijjakarisanaim gorakkhanapalanesu ujjutta 3.116). Manu also corroborates it (vanikpasukrsih 10.79). They must have been highly esteemed because they constituted the productive and the economic strength of the state and the complete material prosperity of a nation depended on them. The Paumacariyam states that the sarthavahas; sresthins; grhapatis (66. 8) and kautumbikas (80. 12) enhanced the prosperity of the Magadha country (2. 3). There is also a reference to the the 'jyesthakas' who enhanced she Sri of Saketanagara (80. 12) and the city of Rajagrha was adorned with the activities of the merchants from various neighbouring states (2.10). These were the financiers, merchants and the agriculturists of those days who held prominent position in the society. The 'Satthaha' was the chief merchant leader of the Caravan, who controlled extensive trade inside and outside the state. The 'Setthis' were the Aldermen of guilds (probably merchant¹). About a 'gahavai' it is mentioned in the Paumacariya (48.79) that his sons were engaged in the work of agriculture and cattle-breeding. Its mention along with the 'Setthis' (66.8) and the 'Satthahas' (2.3) indicates that the 'grhapatis' were the persons of wealth. In the Buddhist Jatakas they are forming a land-owning and mercantile class. The 'kodumbiyas' have been explained as the representatives of the middle class which had the duty of offering to the 1. Buddhist India, p. 50. 2. Gihapasukhettaisu-kunai kammam. 3. OGCI, Vol. I, p. 269.

328 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM king voluntary presents and taxes¹. They are also explained as the heads of the families of cultivators and merchantile people by D. R. Bhandarkar². Gahavai and kodumbiya is synonymous to Bhandarkar³ and to N. K. Dutta¹ who mention that they were also engaged in trade and money-lending. The 'jetthakas' were the Aldermen or presidents of the guilds of handicrafts. They were the headmen of professional guilds who looked after the enforcement of rules and regulations in their respective groups. The Vaniks seem to be the average tradesmen and merchants. All these merchants pillars of economy. They went to the capitals of neighbouring countries (2. 10; 33. 66) or distant countries (5.83) by land route or water route (48. 21; 55. 39). were the The rich persons were called 'dhani' (10. 3. 7). Their richness can be inferred from references to a dealer in gems (5. 32), to a very rich merchant (bahudhhanainno 41. 54), to an owner of wealth worth four crore (5. 82) and to another owner of thirty-two crore (82-56). Kings used to consult prominent merchants for the welfare of the state. The Paumacariya (114. 5) states that Rama had enquired about the conditions of the people of his state form Sresthi Arhadasa. It indicates that prominent merchants or guild-presidents held high position in the state and they were consulted by the king on important matter relating to the administration of the country and its economic policies. Arhadasa of Saketa (89.12) became very remorseful of not offering alms to certain monks. He took rest when he could follow them to Mathura and felt happy when he could pay his homage to them (89.32). His daughter-in-law had duly accorded hospitality to those monks (89.17). Hitankara is referred to as 'susadhupratisevin' (5.28). Hospitality was the most sacred duty of this class. Besides these merchants, the farmers have been referred to (Karisaya 39. 68), Karisao 105.32) as going to their fields for agricultural purposes. A cow-herd (govalao 5.96) is mentioned to be maintaining a big cow-pen and dealing in their sale. 1. Jinist Studics, pp. 79-82. 2. Ibid. p, 79-82. 3. Ibid, p. 80. 4. OGCI, p. 270. 5. Buddhist India, p. 50: 6. Origin and Growth of Caste in India, p. 273.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 329 The Paumacariya refers to some other professionals without mentioning their caste. They were the interpretors (nemittiya 5.68;48.86) of marks and omens, the expositors of dreams (sumine-nemittio 7.80). the astrologers (nakkhatta padhaya & ganiyanu 17.106, 112) and the physicians (vejja 65. 42;110, 27). By their very professions it can be inferred that they belonged to the higher grade of society. The Buddacarita refers to the interpreters of nimittas as Brahmins (Viprasca ..nimittani vicarya, 1.31) who prophesied the future of lord Buddha and they were offered presents of wealth by the king (1.46). Sudra::-The Sudras are mentioned to be constituting the lowest class of the society. They pursued the professions of lower grade and served the other classes (niyakammaniraya parapesana-karaya 3. 117). The Adipurana (16.185-186) states that the Sudras were assigned the duty of serving other three classes and they were divided into two classes, viz. Karu and Akaru. The artisans and craftsmen came under the Karu class and those who lived by peforming services constituted the Akaru class. Manu lays down that if the Sudras are not able to serve the higher castes, they may live by the means of Karukarma. The Karukarmas are said to be various artisan and craft-works (Silpani 10 99-100). According to the above definitions the following professionals, mentioned in the Paumacariya can be put under this lower grade. The weaver (kuvinda 21.2), the potter (kumbhara 5.207), the painter (cittayara 1.21), the mason (sippi 78.48), the garland-maker (sippi yakayamala 6.175); and along with these the acrobats, dancers and bamboo-players (nadanattachattalankhaya 2.5) also belonged to the lower caste. Then there were the betel-leaf dealers (tamboliya 77.90) the fowlers (loddhaya 49.26), paraddhifandiya 6.140), the hunters (vaha 82.52), the fiishermen (dhivara 55. 42; 82. 43), macchabandha (14. 15), the trappers (vauriya 14. 15), the wood-gatherers (tanadarujiviya 31. 44; 103. 30), and the charcoal-makers (aliviya =adipikah 14. 15) who lived on lower type of professions. The kinkaras (mentioned as bath-givers 90. 7; and menial servants 35. 34) and kammakaras (17. 7. working as cart drivers) can be taken as performing services under the people of higher castes. The slaves are referred to as Dasas. They were put to the service of the Jaina temples (jina-hara-nioga-karane 5. 102). Their status can be inferred from a simile. It is said that Bharata, Lavana and Ankusa had subjugated the land like a slave-girl (dasivvavasikaya 5. 179; 99. 18). It indicates that they were completely dependent at the mercy of their masters.

330 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM The Paumacariya refers to Candalas (26. 64) and grants them the right of attaining deliverance. Kautilya lays down that they should live in the vicinity of the cemetery grounds (2. 4. 31). Caste-flexibility:-The professional (caste) rigidity was not observed in its extremity as there are instances of persons following the pursuits of other castes. Vaivasvat as the name indicates was a Brahmin who was a teacher of archery (25. 18). Under him thousands of pupils from various parts of India received training in the science of archery. Bhargava is referred to as an adept in archery (isatthagamakusalo 77. 83) and his son Srivardhita was a valorous fighter. His (vinnanalaghava) academic attainments were so high that he was made the king of Potanapura by Kararuha, the ruler of Puspavatirnanagara (77. 75-88). Rudrabhuti, a notorious Brahmin became the chief of the Kagonanda tribe of the Vindhya forest (34.37). Brahmana Indhana and Pallava are mentioned to be following the pursuits of a farmer (58.4). Madhupingala, a Purohita son, after having eloped with a princess lived on the profession of a wood-gatherer (26. 9). All these instance indicate that the Brahmanas followed other pursuits also. Mere receiving of gifts and begging alms would not have fulfilled the necessities of the Brahmins, hence they took to other professions also. These types of Brahmins are called as Ksatra-brahmins and Vaisya-brahmins in the Dharmasastras¹ and Manu has openly sanctioned that Brahmins can, if the circumstances so require, live by the means of a Ksatriya or Krsigoraksam (10. 81-83). Atmasreyas, a grhapati's son ( i. e. Vaisya) was on account of his idleness expelled from his house. He obtained a medical ring and with the help of it he earned his livelihood. He cured a queen and acquired great favour from the king (48. 90). Anka whose caste is not mentioned (but not Brahmin or Ksatriya) was expelled from his home town by the people. He then lived on the profession of a wood-gatherer but later on his friend king Acala made him the ruler of Sravasti 88. 18; 22, 34). These are the literary evidences which indicate flexibility in following the professions of other castes. How far it was true in actual life of the society of our period can be corroborated by the inscriptional evidences of the Vakataka-Cupta-age. It is recorded that Brahmanas became rulers, entered army, followed trade, worked as architects and goverment servants. Ksatriyas followed commercial and industrial pursuits also. These are the cases of accepting those professions 1. Histary of Dharmasastras, Vol. II, Pt. VI, p 130

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 331 which were inferior to those of their own caste. The same was true vice-versa. Gupta rulers were Vaisyas. Vaisyas and Sudras took to military career and became even captains and generals (The Vakataka Gupta Age; Dr. A. S. Alteker (1954), pp. 316-218). 1 Thus what the Paumacariya reveals can be actually observed in the life of the people as evidenced in the incriptions. Similarly intercaste and inter-racial marriages (See Section on Marriage) were prevalent in those days and therefore there can exist no doubt about inter-caste dining.