Appendix 3f - Shaiva temples at the Deccan

From Orissa we may pass on to the Deccan which was one of the earliest centres of Saivism in India. Most of the Vakataka kings, who ruled in the area corresponding to Central Provinces and Berar in the fourth and fifth centuries A. D., are described in their inscriptions as paramamahesvara or fervent devotees of Siva. One of them, Rudrasena I, who reigned in the first half of the fourth century A. D., is described as a devotee of Mahabhairava, which shows that Siva was worshipped in both his benign and terrible forms. The Vakatakas were related by marriage to the Bharasivas who are invariably mentioned in the initial portion of the inscriptions of the former. Gautami-putra, the son of Pravarasena I, married the daughter of the Bharasiva king Bhavanaga; and the issue of this marriage was Rudrasena I. The Bharasivas seem to have carved out a principality for themselves on the banks of the Ganges, as they are described as having had their coronation bath with the pure waters of the Ganges acquired by their valour . These Bharasivas were staunch Saivas, as they are described as having pleased Siva by carrying the sivalinga on their shoulders, resembling in this respect the Virasaivas or Lingayats of later times. It is possible that they originally belonged to the Deccan and later established themselves in North India.³ The Vakatakas must have built shrines dedicated to Siva, but none of them is known to have survived, Rudrasena I is said to have built a dharmasthana, probably in honour of Mahabhairava. It is also possible that the ancient flat-roofed temple at, Tigowa near Bahuribandh in the Jubbalpur District was dedicated to Siva, like the flat -roofed temple at Bhumara in Nagod State.* It may be noted that the cult of Visnu was patronized by two of the Vakataka kings. Unlike his predecessors, Rudrasena II worshipped Cakrapani (Visnu), probably under the influence of his wife Prabhavatigupta , the daughter of the Gupta emperor Candragupta II (380-414 A. D. ); while Prthivisena II, the last known king of the elder branch of the Vakataka dynasty, who reigned in the second half of the fifth century A. D., is described 1 See, for instance, Mirashi: Pattan plates of Pravarasena II, Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXIII, pp. 81-88; Kielhorn: Balaghat Plates of Prithivisena II, Ibid. Vol. IX, pp . 267-71; and Mirashi: The Vakataka Dynasty of the Central Provinces and Berar in Annual Bulletin of the Nagpur University Historical Society, October, 1946. 2 'amsabhara samnivesita sivalingodvahanasiva suparitustasamutpaditarajavamsanam ' 3 See Mirashi: Pauni Stone Inscription of the Bhara King Bhagadatta, BI, Vol. XXIV pp. 11-15. 4 See above,

as a parama-bhagavata or fervent worshipper of Visnu in the Balaghat plates. The sacred hill of Ramagiri with the footprints of Rama on its slopes, made famous by Kalidasa in his Meghaduta, was a holy spot in the Vakataka age, and is mentioned as such in the Riddhapur plates of Prabhavatigupta which were issued from Ramagiri. Similarly, the Pattan plates of Pravarasena II (first half of the 5 th ceutury A. D.) record the grant of a village called Asvatthakhetaka for the maintenance of a charity hall in honour of the foot-prints of Mahapurusa, evidently Visnu or Rama. It should, however, be noted that Pravarasena II himself is described as a parama-mahesvara or a fervent devotee of Siva in Vakataka inscriptions. Further light on the prominent position of Saivism in ancient Deccan is thrown by an inscription of the early Rastrakuta king Abhimanyu issued at Manapura. It records the grant of a village called Undikavatika to a recluse named Jatabhara in honour of the god Daksina-Siva of Pethapangaraka. It was formerly thought that Daksina-Siva might be the deity of the great Saiva shrine in the Mahadeva Hills in the Hoshangabad District of Central Provinces; and Pethapangaraka might be Pagara, the headquarters of the Zamindari of that name. Manapura could be Manapura in Malwa, about twelve miles south-west of Mhow, or Manapura near Bandhogarh in Rewa State. But, as suggested by Prof. Mirashi, it is much more probable that the Manapura mentioned in the inscription of Abhimanyu is identical with Man, the chief. sub-division of the Satara District of Bombay Province, through which flows the Manganga, a tributary of the Bhima. It is noteworthy that an inscription of Avidheya, another king of the same family, records the grant of a 1 ' ramagirisvaminah padamulat '. Ramagiri is now Ramtek, a wellknown place of pilgrimage near Nagpur. At present the centre of interest is the group of temples on the hill overlooking the town. The temple of Ramacandra, about 500 feet above the town, is the most prominent. The others are dedicated to Laksmana, Kausalya, Satya Narayana, Laksmi Narayana, Hanuman etc. The temple of Harihara is popularly known as the Dasaratha temple. There are also two temples with huge idols of Narasimha and the remains of a very old temple of the Dwarf incarnation called Trivikrama. One of the temple courts contains a huge image of the Boar Incarnation under a small flat-roofed shrine. An inscription on a wall of the temple of Laksmana contains the names of two kings of the Haihaya family who reigned in Mahakosala (modern Chattisgarh) in the latter part of the fourteenth century A. D., and so gives a clue to the age of the building. It is noteworthy that the aforesaid inscription refers to several Saiva temples, such as Ghaptesvara, Sudhesvara, Kedara, Ambikanatha, Dharmesvara, Muktisvara etc. Besides, there is a Sivalinga called Dhumresvara Mahadeva, to whom offerings are made by pilgrims before worshipping Rama. The linga is believed to represent Sambuka, the Sudra ascetic killed by Rama. The presence of the Sivalinga in front of the temple of Rama and the enumeration of Siva temples in the inscription mentioned above would seem to indicate the existence of a Saiva cult prior to the foundation of the existing Vaisnava temples. It may also be noted that the group of temples on the hill includes two temples dedicated to Mahisasura-mardini; and down the hill is a temple of Candika built of massive blocks of hewn stone. For details see Indian Antiquary, 1908. p. 202 ff. 2 'mahapurusapada mulasatropayojyam •

t f e village called Pandarangapalli situated on the bank of the Ane river, which is most probably identical with the Yenna, or the Vena, which rises on the Mahabalesvara plateau and falls into a valley to the east of the Mahabale- svara hill in the Satara District. As regards the shrine of Daksina-Siva mentioned in the records of Abhimanyu, there are several Saiva temples on the summit of hills in the Satara District, the best known being that of Mahabale- svara not far from the source of the Krsna. Manapura was no doubt founded by Mananka, the first king of the family, who is mentioned in both the inscriptions; and Abhimanyu and Avidheya were apparently ruling over the territory corresponding to the Satara District of Bombay Province. The inscriptions on paleographic in question have been assigned to the fifth century A. D. grounds; and genealogical considerations have led to Mananka being placed in the last quarter of the fourth century and Abhimanyu towards the end of the fifth century A. D. The rulers of Manapura, or the Rastrakutas of Manapura , as they have been called, were thus contemporaries of the Vakatakas , and appear to have been, like them, worshippers of Siva. As for the cult of Visnu, it no doubt existed in the Vakataka age, but seems to have occupied a secondary place; and similar conditions appear to be reflected in the subsequent history of the Deccan. Saivism played a decisive role in the temple architecture of the Deccan and the adjoining countries. The early Calukyas were mostly followers of the Vaisnava cult. The Vaisnava cave at Badami in the Bijapur district was excavated in 578 A. D. under Kirtivarman I; while his brother Mangalisa who succeeded him upon the throne is described as a parama-bhagavata. There is also no doubt that some of the ancient temples at Aihole, now a village, about twelve miles due east of Badami, were dedicated to Visnu. But, towards the beginning of the eighth century A. D., the Calukyas show a decided leaning to Saivism, and seem to have become worshippers of Siva. It is about this time that Pattadakal, now a small village, about ten miles east of Badami, emerges as an important religious centre with Saivism playing a dominant role. Three Saiva temples of considerable size were built here, the oldest being the massive temple of Vijayesvara, now called that of Sangamesvara built by Vijayaditya (696-733 A. D.). Of the other two, the temple of Virupaksa (Lokesvara) is the largest and the most important of the old temples in the Kanarese districts. It was built by Lokamahadevi, the queen consort of Vikramaditya II (733-746 A. D.), in commemoration of his having thrice conquered Kanci or Conjeveram. Including the eastern and western gateways, the building measures 250 feet over all, of which the main building occupies a length of 120 feet.' Within the great hall are eighteen heavy square pillars, decorated with sculptures representing scenes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Close to the temple of Virupaksa is that of Mallikarjuna, which has been identified with the temple of Trailokyesvara 6 1 Mirashi: The Rastrakutas of Manapura in ABORI, Vol. XXV, p. 36. 2 For details see Cousens: Chalukyan Architecture of the Kanarese Districts. Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. XLII, 1926. 3 See below (section on Vaisnavism). 62

erected by the younger queen of Vikramaditya II, named Trailokyamahadevi, a sister of Lokamahadevi. The general plan and design are the same as in Virupaksa, but many parts of this temple have been left unfinished. The temples of Vijayesvara, Virupaksa and Trailoky esvara form an imposing group; and an inscription which gives us information about these three temples is engraved upon a great column which stands upon the north side of Virupaksa. It was erected by a sculptor, named Subhadeva, for a Saiva teacher named Jnanasiva who had come from a place on the north bank of the Ganges, in 754 A. D., during the reign of Kirtivarman II. There are certain other old Saiva temples at Pattadakal, such as those of Kasivisvanatha, Galaganatha and Kadasiddhesvara, but they are smaller in size, and of uncertain date; and there exist also the remains of two other temples of the same class, namely, Jambhulinga and Candrasekhara. Far more important is the large ornate temple of Papanatha, which cannot be later than that of Virupaksa, but seems to have been dedicated to Visnu, as shown by the Garuda emblem over the shrine door. There are, however, indications that it was, at a later date, converted to Saiva worship." Siva temples are found also at Badami, in the south-east corner of the Bijapur district, the former Vatapi, a capital of the early Calukyas. The oldest and the best preserved is the Malegitti-sivalaya, 'the Saiva shrine of the female Garland-maker,' 56 feet in length, and of the same style as the older temples at Aihole. 'It is a complete Dravidian temple.... All its parts are heavy and massive and well proportioned to one another.' It seems to have been originally dedicated to Visnu, with that deity in the ceiling, and Garuda on the lintel of the shrine doorway. Another interesting temple at Badami is the smaller one of Lakulisa, an incarnation of Siva, whose image is seated upon the altar in the shrine, and represented nude as usual. Badami possesses yet another old Saiva temple, that of Virupaksa, which is still in use. In a secluded glen between Pattadakal and Badami is the temple of Mahakutesvara, which may be ascribed to the early part of the sixth century A. D., as an inscription of 601 A. D., engraved on a column found near the temple, records an additional grant made in continuation of a previous endowment of the god Siva under the name of Makutesvaranatha. Another temple, which, on the grounds of style and 'more cyclopean-looking masonry', is regarded as older than the seventh century A. D., is that of Huchchimalli-Gudi at Aihole. Unfortunately the interior of the shrine has been totally wrecked, portions of the linga and the paving of the floor lying about in great confusion'. An inscription of 708 A. D., upon the front of 1 'There is a dvarapala, four-armed, on either side of the shrine door......... In the upper left hand of the south figure is a trisula, but it has been made of plaster, evidently after the temple was converted to Saiva worship.' There is also the tandava sculpture on the face of the tower. On the other hand, 'the astadikpala ceiling, in the centre of the hall, has Visnu reclining upon Sesa as its central panel instead of the tandava of Siva which is usual in such ceilings found in Saiva temples.' Cousens (op. cit.), p. 69.

the temple, records a grant of oil to the priest of the temple by the Calukya king Vijayaditya, the builder of the Vijayesvara temple. The Calukyas were supplanted by the Rastrakutas about the middle of the eighth century A. D. The latter achieved little in the way of building structural temples, but they had their own works in hand in the north, notably the great excavations at Elura, which extended from the Dasa Avatara cave to the extensive group of Jaina caves around the Indra and Jagannath Sabhas.' These included the great monolithic temple of Kailasa, dedicated to Siva, which appears to have been excavated at Elura or Ellora, about fourteen miles northwest of Aurangabad, during the reign of Krsna I who ruled between 756 and 775 A. D. He is described as having built many temples of Siva, resembling the Kailasa mountain; and, it was under the orders of this monarch that a most marvellous Siva temple, evidently the great Kailasa temple, is said to have been constructed on the hill at Elapura (Elura). The Kailasa resembles the temple of Virupaksa (Lokesvara) at Pattadakal in plan and details, although the former is hewn out of the solid rock, and the latter is built in the ordinary way on level ground. There is similarity even in the sculptures on the two temples, representing scenes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. 'In Lokesvara they occur upon the broad bands round the shafts of the great columns of the hall, while on Kailasa they are sculptured in narrow bands on the wall of the basement below the porch'. 'Another unusual representation is that of the Siva-linga with Brahma and Visnu beside it, which is found, in both cases, on the front of the temple.' The Kailasa, in spite of its marvellous technique, and the more graceful treatment of its details, thus appears to be modelled on Virupaksa; and it is probable that the Rastrakutas copied the Calukyan building art when they had overthrown the dynasty, just as the Calukyas themselves had copied the Dravidian architecture of the south when they had carried their victorious arms to Kanci or Conjeveram.2 Unlike other cave-temples, the Kailasa, once gorgeously painted, stands, isolated from the surrounding rock, 'in a great court averaging 154 feet wide by 276 long at the level of the base, entirely cut out of the solid rock, and with a scarp 107 feet high at the back." The bewildering amount of labour and technical skill expended on the celebrated temple bears eloquent testimony to the importance which the Saiva cult had attained in the Deccan in the Rastrakuta age. 6 3. The Ellora group of cave temples includes, besides the Kailasa, other shrines dedicated to Siva such as the large cave north of Kailasa (XVII), and Caves XXII (Nilakantha), XXIII and XXVI. Far more important is Cave XXI, a lofty Saiva temple, locally known as Ramesvara. The hall is 15 feet high and measures 69 feet by 251 with a chapel at each end, cut off by two cushion-capital pillars.' Cave XXIX is known as Sita's 23 1 Bhandarkar: Early History of the Dekkan. Third edition, p. 109 ff. For an elaborate comparison between the two temples see Cousens (op. cit.), p. 62. Burgess: A Guide to Elura cave temples, p. 31. (Reprinted by the Hyderabad Archaeological Department).

Nahani, or Dumar Lena. The great hall, including the shrine, is 148 feet wide by 149 deep, and 17 feet 8 inches high, but the excavation extends to about 240 feet from north to south." This cave is remarkably similar to the great Saiva cave temple at Elephanta, but it is larger and in some respects finer; it is also, perhaps, later in age. The shrine is a small square room containing a linga, with four doors, each guarded by a pair of gigantic dvarapalas. Elephanta is a small island near Bombay, about seven miles to the north-east of Apollo Bandar; and the great cave temple of Siva hewn out of the living rock is on the north face of the western hill. The cave consists of a central hall and four vestibules, and measures about 130 feet in length, the breadth being approximately the same. The roof is supported by massive columns varying in height from 15 to 17 feet. These originally numbered twenty-six, of which eight have collapsed. The cave is remarkable for its colossal sculptures representing Siva in his various forms including Nataraja, Gangadhara and Ardhanarisvara. But the most striking sculpture in the cave is the huge panel consisting of a triple-headed bust of Siva, which rises to a height of 17 feet 10 inches above a moulded base, nearly 3 feet high. The image stands in a recess 10 feet deep, 'within which the heads emerge clifflike from the native rock.' The triple head represents three aspects of Siva: Tatpurusa (the supreme Mahadeva) in the middle, and Vamadeva (the Beautiful) and Aghora (the Terrible) on the sides. The image of Mahadeva 'dominates the whole assemblage. It is the concrete form of Siva whose linga is worshipped in the adjacent shrine. The plan of the rock-cut temple was thus adjusted to the image; the entire hall is laid out in front of it in its deep recess. The stage is set for that form (rupa) of His who is beyond form, and who pervades the universe, which thus is His visible body." 2 The cave-temple at Elephanta bas generally been assigned to the latter part of the eighth century A. D., and is probably of the same age as the excavations at Ellora, which fall in the Rastrakuta period. The close resemblance between the Dumar Lena at Ellora and the Elephanta cave has attracted the attention of observers; while pillars with compressed cushion capitals' have been found both in Elephanta and some of the cave temples at Ellora. But the simple grandeur of the Elephanta sculptures in striking contrast to the complex and grotesque multiplicity of those at Ellora suggests a somewhat earlier date for the former, possible the seventh century A. D.3 In the tenth century A. D., Ellora and Elephanta must have been great centres 1 Ibid. p. 47. 2 Stella Kramrisch in Ancient India, Number 2, p. 7. 3 See Hirananda Sastri: A Guide to Elephanta (published by the Government of India) and Burgess: The Rock temples of Elephanta or Gharapuri. When the Portuguese occupied the island in 1534, the cave temple must have been in excellent preservation. The Portuguese captain Joao de Castro, who visited the island in 1538, thought that the cave could not be the work of human hands. Even Apelles', ho says, 'might have learned from the proportion and symmetry of the figures.' 'The

of Saiva worship, like Somanathapattana, Ujjain, Khajuraho, The and Tanjore. Apart from the Ellora and the Elephanta cave-temples, there were no doubt other temples dedicated to Siva in existence during the Rastrakuta period. It was in a Siva temple that Govinda III (794-814 A. D.) deposited the two statues sent by the king of Ceylon as a token of submission." custom of founding a Siva temple in commemoration of a dead ancestor, and of naming the deity after the person to be commemorated, had already become prevalent in our period. Hebbal inscription, dated 975 A. D., refers to a temple of Bhujjabbesvara built to commemorate Bhubbarasi, the grand-mother of the Ganga ruler Marasimha II." It may be noted that Siva temples existed in Mysore during the Rastrakuta period. The religion of the Gangas was Jainism, but they were liberal in their outlook; and some of the early kings favoured the worship of Siva, for example, Tadangala Madhava and Avinita (circa 5 th-6 th century A. D.). A considerable number of Siva temples seems to have been built during the rule of the later Gangas who were contemporaries of the Rastrakutas. Notable among these are the shrine of Bhoganandisvara at the foot of the Nandi hills, Somesvara at Gangavaripalli, Kapilesvara, at Manne etc. The construction of so many temples for the worship of Siva proves the prevalence of Saivism side by side with Jainism in Mysore, although under the Gangas the latter was the more influential and favoured religion. 3 Saiva temples were constructed or maintained, on a wide scale, during the reign of the Calukyas of Kalyani, as shown by the various grants and endowments recorded in their inscriptions. For example, an inscription of 980 A. D. belonging to the reign of Taila II is the subject of an endowment made for the benefit of the temple of Suvarnaksi, a form of Siva, styled Samkara-Svayambhu-Suvarnamahaksi, at Soval (Sogal in the Belgaum district). An inscription of 1064 A. D. records the grant of an endowment to the temple of Kesavesvara at Pottiyur (Hottur); another of 1074 A. D. deals with the grant of a town for the maintenance of the sanctuary of Ramesvara at Pomballi (Hombli); while the temple of Maha-Svayambhuas 6 Portuguese annalist Diogo de Couto writing in the opening years of the 17 th century says that the interior of the temple had formerly been covered with a coat of lime mixed with bitumen and other compositions that made the temple bright and very beautiful and worth seeing; and the features and workmanship were such that 'neither in silver or wax could such figures be engraved with greater nicety, fineness or perfection.' Unfortunately it was during Portuguese occupation that the temple was damaged and the figures sadly mutilated. For detailed references see Commissariatbart History of Gujarat, Vol. I, Appendix, pp. 541-9. 1 Altekar: The Rastrakutas and their times, p. 69. 2 Ibid. p. 287. 3 Rao: The Gangas of Talkad, p. 232. A systematic study of the early temples of Mysore is a desideratum. 4 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XVI, pp. 2, 6. 5 Ibid. Vol. XVI, p. 82. 6 Ibid. p. 69 ff.

Somanatha, the Somanatha of the South', at Purikara (Puligere, the modern Lakshmeshwar), (all in the Dharwar district), is referred to in several inscriptions belonging to the first half of the twelfth century A. D.' Further, an inscription of the reign of Soyi Deva, the son of Bijjala, records endowments made in 1172 A. D. for the temples of Siva-Somanatha (RayaMurari-Somanatha) and Bijjesvara at Malige (Madagihal in Jat State, near Bijapur).³ Apart from inscriptional evidence, there exists a large number of surviving specimens of later Calukyan Saiva temples, ranging from the tenth century to the end of the twelfth, mostly in the Dharwar district and the immediate neighbourhood. In fact, it will be no exaggeration to say that later Calukyan architecture was almost entirely devoted to the glorification of the Saiva faith. The advent of the later Calukyas under Taila II, towards the end of the tenth century, gave a fresh impetus to temple building; and it is from this time that we notice a gradual transformation of the earlier Dravidian style, till what is known as the Calukyan style came into existence. In the first place, the earlier building material, the rougher grained sandstone, was abandoned in favour of 'the more compact, tractable, and finer grained black stone known as chloritic schist, which dresses down to a much finer surface, and has enabled the sculptors to produce so much of that beautiful, delicate, lacelike tracery which characterises the later work. In the second place, there was a diminution in the size of the masonry, the heavy cyclopean blocks of the early temples being discarded in favour of much smaller ones. Finally, the storied or horizontal arrangement of the towers, a prominent characteristic of the Dravidian style found in the early temples, became obliterated by a great profusion of ornamental detail, and underwent a process of approximation to the vertical bands up the centre of each face of the Northern tower. The transition from the earlier to this later style, evolved about the tenth and eleventh centuries, is seen in the S'aiva temple of Kallesvara at Kukkanur and the Jaina temple at Lakkundi"; while that of Kasivisvesvara at the latter place shows a further marked development of the Calukyan tower. On a beam in the hall of the latter building is an inscription, dated in the thirteenth year of the reign of the later Calukya king Vikramaditya VI, which corresponds to 1087 A. D. One of the finest of existing Calukyan temples 'probably the finest temple in the Kanarese districts, after Halebid,' is that of Mahadeva in the small village of Ittagi, in the Nizam's territory, about twenty-two miles due east of Gadag in the Dharwar district. It measures, over all, 120 feet by 66 feet,' and consists of a shrine, with its antechamber, a closed and a great open hall at the east end, which was originally supported upon sixtyeight pillars. The temple is mentioned in 1 Ibid. Three Inscriptions of Lakshmeshwar by L. D. Barnett. 21 Ibid. Vol. XV, p. 317. 3 See Cousens (op. cit.), p. 74 ff. 4 A village in the Nizam's territory, at a short distance across the border from Gadag in the Dharwar district. 5 Now a small village near Gadag. 6 Cousens (op. cit.), p. 79.

an inscription of 1112 A. D., which tells us that it was founded, as a temple of Siva, under the name Mahadevesvara, by Mahadeva, the danda-nayaka, or general, of Vikramaditya VI (1075-1125 A. D.). He founded also a temple of Narayana, and other S'aiva shrines such as those of Candalesvara and Bhairava. One of the largest Saiva temples of the Calukyan period, in the Dharwar district, is that of Tarakesvara, in the town of Hangal, chiefly remarkable for the magnificent dome which covers the central portion of the great hall,' the roof of which is supported upon fifty-two pillars. The temple of Kaithabhesvara at Anavatti, in Maisur, just across the border from the Dharwar district, is distinguished by its unusually lofty hall, the pillars being massive in proportion. The temple of Daksina-Kedaresvara at Balagamve is now shorn of its intportance, but it was a great educational centre, of which we have already spoken. Saiva temples of the Calukyan period are found also at Chaudadampur (Muktesvara), Haveri (Siddhesvara), Haralhalli (Somesvara), and Rattehalli (Kadambesvara), all in the Dharwar district . The temple of Kadambesvara contains an inscription which records a grant to it in 1174 A. D. for repairing the building. Inscriptions dating from 899 to 1262 A. D. are engraved on several slabs standing beside the temple at Chaudadampur, the later ones recording grants and gifts to the god of the temple under the names of Muktesvara and Muktinatha. The temple of Madhukesvara at Banavasi, a very ancient place, now a village, eighteen miles south by west from Hangal, belongs to the eleventh century, as one of the inscribed slabs in and around the temple records a grant in the year 1068 A. D. The so-called Temple of the Sixty Columns, now in a ruined state, at Bankapur, and that of Trikutesvara at Gadag, both in the Dharwar district, may also be ascribed to the eleventh century. The former temple contains inscriptions upon either side of the shrine door, recording grants made to the god Nagaresvara in 1138 and 1091 A. D. Similarly, one of the inscriptions collected together at the temple of Trikutesvara records a grant made in 1062 A. D. in the time of Ahavamalla II. Calukyan temples are found also in the Bellary district of the Madras Presidency, and most of them are dedicated to Siva (Kallesvara, Kattesvara, Bhimesvara etc.). There is no doubt that the inspiration derived from Saivism helped the building art of the Calukyas and the technical competence of their craftsmen to give a distinctive stamp to Indian culture in the Deccan. Even in the northern part of the Deccan, outside the sphere of the Calukyas, we find a preponderance of temples dedicated to Siva. The most ornate of the temples in the Deccan style is that at the village of Ambarnatha, about four miles south-east of Kalyan, in the Thana district. This chef-d'oeuvre of the builder's art' was built for the worship of Siva 1 Poussin: Dynasties et Histoire de l'Inde, p. 211; Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XIII, p. 36 ff. 2 Cousens (op. cit.), pp. 84, 96, 104, 112, 128. 3 Seo Rea: Chalukyan Architecture. Archaeological Survey of India. New Imperial Series, Vol. XXI. 4 See Cousens: Mediaeval Temples of the Dakhan. Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. XLVIII.

in 1060 A. D., during the reign of the Silahara chief Mummuni or Mamvani. The temple measures 89 feet by 73 feet, and is made up of the sanctum and mandapa or hall, the latter being provided with three entrances, each with its own porch. The temples in the Deccan style are not remarkable for their size, that of Gondesvara or Govindesvara at Sinnar, twenty miles south of Nasik, being about the largest now standing. It is a pancayatana temple forming a group of five shrines, the central main temple being dedicated to Siva, and the four small surrounding shrines to Visnu, Ganapati and others. It is supposed to have been built by Rav Govinda; and it is possible it may be named after Govindaraja , one of the Yadava princes, who ruled about the beginning of the 12 th century '. Another temple, that of Mahesvara, at Patna, ten miles to the southwest of Chalisgaon in Khandesh, was completed by a chief Govana, of the Nikumbha family, who was ruling in that locality under the Yadavas in 1153 A.D.¹ To sum up, the temple, architecture of the Deccan bears testimony to the paramount character of Saivism in that region from about the eighth century to the end of the twelfth. No other faith, whether Vaisnavism or Jainism, during this period, found so elaborate an expression in the building art of the time.