Chapter 12 - A controversial dialogue

One of the most interesting episodes of Yasastilaka is the animated dialogue in Book IV between Yasodhara and his mother Candramati on the subject of animal sacrifice, the former being a convert to Jainism, and the latter a champion of the Brahmanical faith. Certain tenets of the Vedio religion are attacked by Yasodhara in the course of his argument, and he also attempts to establish the ancient and authoritative character of the Jaina faith by citing various texts from what are apparently non-Jaina sources. A dramatic character is given to the dialogue by the use of parenthetic indications resembling stage directions, and but for the numerous quotations, the dialogue is cast in a form that could easily be adapted to the stage. Another, and perhaps more striking, example of a dramatic dialogue occurs in our work in the story of Padma in Book VII.' The controversy between Yasodhara and his mother starts from the point where the latter asks him to sacrifice all kinds of animals before the tutelary goddess, and then perform an appropriate rite to counteract the effect of his evil dream. While making the request, she asserts on the authority of Manu that animals may be legitimately killed in sacrifices and the worship of the gods and the Manes, and, as a matter of fact, a Brahmana, killing animals on such occasions, ensures for himself as well as the victims a state of bliss after death. Further, the killing of animals in sacrifices is not killing at all, since animals have been created by Brahman himself for the purpose of sacrifices, and sacrifices are meant for the good of all. Yasodhara, closing his ears and heaving a sigh, expresses surprise at the amount of evil that can be done by delusion and its cause ignorance, and entreats his mother to allow him to speak a few words. After a preliminary discussion on Carvaka views, which mother and son agree in repudiating, Yasodhara admits the desirability of a rite for counteracting the effect of an evil dream, but firmly objects to the expedient of sacrificing animals before the goddess, as suggested by his mother. The protection of living creatures, he argues, is the primary duty of Ksatriyas, and it would be a repudiation of that duty if he killed harmless animals. A king, in fact, takes up arms only against an armed foe on the battlefield or a malefactor of his kingdom, but never against those who are wretched or lowly or well-meaning. 'How then, mother', asks Yasodhara, 'can I strike living creatures with weapons, myself pure in my conduct in relation to this life and the life beyond?' Further, 1 See Chap. XVI.

has she forgotten that only the previous day the minister's son Nitibrhaspati had, at her instance, taught him certain significant verses on the subject? na kurviti svayam himsam pravrttam ca nivarayet | jivitam balamarogyam sasvadvanchan mahipatih || yo dadyat kancanam merum krtsnam capi vasumdharam | ekasya jivitam dadyat phalena na samam bhavet || yathatmani sarirasya duhkham necchanti jantavah | tatha yadi parasyapi na duhkham tesu jayate || 'A king who constantly desires longevity, strength and health must do no injury to living creatures himself nor allow it to take place when planned by others. One may give away the Meru mountain of gold as well as the entire earth. The result will not be equal to that of saving the life of a single sentient being. Suffering will cease to exist among living creatures if they no longer wish to cause physical pain to others, just as they do not wish to cause it to themselves.' Yasodhara points out that there are many commendable expedients other than the killing of animals for propitiating the Brahmanas and the gods, and sustaining the body. Why do honest people then commit the sin of killing? Besides, animal flesh is full of impurities: if it pleased the gods, we would rather worship the tigers! samtarpanartham dvijadevatanam pustyarthamangasya ca santyupayah | anye'pi loke bahuvah prasastah santah kutah papamihacaranti || sukrasonitasambhutamasucinam niketanam | mamsam cet prinayeddevanetadvyaghranupasmahe || Yasodhara declares the current opinion that the gods are pleased with animal sacrifices to be false, and says hatah krpanena vane'pi jantavo badham mriyante galapidanacca | adanti caitan svayameva devyo vyaghrah stavarhah paramantra santu || misam daivamayam hi loko madye ca mamse ca ratim karoti | evam na ceddurgatisamgamih syadduskarmanam ko'para eva margah || krtva noisivong ou qib 46 bas 'Animals surely perish in the woods, killed with swords, or strangled to death, and there are goddesses who of their own accord devour them. But the tigers alone are worthy of praise (for they themselves kill and eat unlike the gods who make others kill). People are addicted to wine and flesh on the pretext that these serve to please the gods. But if the wicked do not go to hell in this way, what other way thitherward is open to them?' Further, if Dharma is really based on the killing of animals, why is hunting called paparddhi, 'progress in sin'? Why is it customary to bring in flesh under cover? Why is flesh called Ravanasaka, Ravana's herb'? Why is it shunned on sacred days? Yasodhara terminates this part of his argument by quoting a number of authoritative texts in support of abstention from killing.

Hearing these words, Yasodhara's mother says to herself: mata - (svagatam ) aho madiye sute sampratam jainajanavata iva lagnah pratibhasate | visamasca khalu bhavatyayam janah | yasmacciram samayantaroparacitatratikaranyapyanyesam manamsi prayena pasyatohara iva haratyarhato lokah | tadvasanavasitam hi ceto na brahmanapi sakyate'nyathakartum | duscikitsyasca khalu karinam kutapakala iva praninam ksapanakopanotascittasyabhinivesah | Ah, now the Jaina wind seems to have taken possession of my son. These Jainas are difficult people to deal with, because like thieves, they beguile the minds of men, though long protected by the doctrines of other schools. Once the mind is imbued with their ideas, Brahman himself cannot divert it to other channels. The cast of mind produced in men by the Jainas is indeed beyond remedy, like the fever of elephants.' Candramati then recollects the priest's son Sivasarman having told her that the king had met a Digambara Jaina ascetic living under a tree, and for a long while discussed religious topics with him. She remarks that her son has since evinced a dislike for wine, meat, hunting and animal sacrifice, and demonstrated his hostility to the injunctions of the Vedas and the Law-books. Then addressing herself to the councillors, and calling them monsters and destroyers of her son and the kingdom, and despoilers of the people, she gives vent to her wrath and censures them for allowing her immature son, despite her instructions to the contrary, to come into touch with the Digambara Jainas, who are, like magicians, habitually skilled in bewitching the world. She addresses her son in a menacing tone, and calling him a raw Carvaka, tells him that she has understood him well, and can herself give him a suitable reply. She asks him how he can ever have any leaning towards the religion of the Digambaras, which makes no provision for the gratification of the gods, the Manes and the Brahmanas, and for dips in sacred waters as well as oblations in the fire; a religion outside the jurisdiction of the Vedas and the Law-books. None but him would care to talk with those heretics, who speak ill of the gods and the Brahmanas, eat standing like brutes, and are devoid of all sense of shame and personal hygiene. Besides, their system came into being only in the Kali Age, and not even their name was known in earlier times. They hold quite unreasonably that men become gods and the gods are many. To speak the truth, the Veda is the sole authority in the matter of religion, and there is no god other than the Veda. He who does not know the Veda well does not know the regulations of the four castes and the four stages of life. Then if Yasodhara has any devotion 1 The reference is to the twenty four Tirthankaras' or Apostles worshipped as divine beings.

to the gods, let him worship Siva or Visnu or the Sun. When they are pleased, they transport their worshippers in a moment to their respective cities, and when gratified, vouchsafe even a kingdom. na tarpanam devapitrdvijanam snanasya homasya na casti varta | sruteh smrterbahyatare ca dhiste dharme katham putra digambaranam || udbhah pasunam sadrsam prasante ye lajjaya saucagunena hinah | tvattah parastaih saha ko hi gosthim karotu devadvijanindakaisca || namapi purvam na samastyamisamabhut kalau darsanametadiyam | devo manusyah kila so'pyanekasta evamicchanti ca nirvicaram || dharme pramanam khalu veda eva vedat param daivatamatra nasti | yo veda samyan na hi vedamenam varnasramacaramasau na veda || athasti bhaktistava daivatesu haram harim vardhaya bhaskaram va | nayanti hrstah svapurim ksanena tustah prayacchanti ca rajyamete || bus sbr Hearing these words, Yasodhara reflects within himself that even washing with nectar cannot cleanse a heart that is by nature black as charcoal. Yet he recognises that his opponent in the debate is his own mother, 'the presiding deity of the kingdom', and she is at liberty to speak as she likes to him. Then addressing his mother and entreating her to pardon him for what he is going to say, he replies to the charges brought by her against the Jaina religion, and in so doing severely criticizes certain aspects of the Brahmanical faith. Speaking of Sraddha, Yasodhara argues that if it is true that the Pitrs have betaken themselves to earthly existences or celestial abodes as a result of their good deeds, they cannot have any need for annual offerings of rice-balls, which are actually taken by Brahmanas and crows: mayaisu cet sadmasu nakinam va vidhaya punyam pitarah prayatah | tesamapeksa dvijakakabhuktaih pindairbhavedvarsakrtairna kapi || Further, the ancients prescribed Sraddha and other rites by way of religious observances, because religion has to be practised by all decent people, desirous of their own good, in one form or another ; and no one, as a rule, practises religion unless there is an occasion for it: yenapi kenapi bhisena manyairdharmo vidheyah svahitaikatanyaih | anena kamena krtah puranairmargo'yamatmabhyudayapravinaih || nirnimittam na ko'piha janah prayena dharmadhih | atah sraddhadikah proktah kriyah kusalabuddhibhih || Similarly, the observance of Amavasya, pilgrimage, reception of guests, Sraddha rites, and observances connected with particular days, occasions and stars have been declared by the ancients to be conducive to the religious merit of those who are unable to practise constant charity: parvatirthatithisraddhavaravasaratarakah | nityam datumasaktanam punyayoktah puratanaih ||

It is not true to say that the Jainas do not gratify the Twice-born. They do worship the Munis (Jaina ascetics), who are 'Twice-born', being once actually born, and born a second time at the time of initiation into the religious vows. Nor is it true to say that Jainism does not recognise ceremonial baths, because the Jaina householder is enjoined to take a bath before worshipping the Arhat or studying the Sacred Books or devoting himself to meditation. One must not, however, think that a mere dip in a river or a pool of water or a tank or the ocean leads to any religious merit, for in that case it is the aquatic animals that would go to heaven first. It has been rightly said that those who are maddened by passion, hate and pride, and addicted to women, are never purified even by bathing at hundreds of sacred sites: W janmaikamatmadhigamo dvitiyam bhavenmuninam vratakarmana ca | ami dvijah sadhu bhavanti tesam samtarpanam jainajanah karoti || khatva yajetaptamathavagamam va pathedyadi dhyanamupacaredva | snanam bhavedeva grhasritanam svargapavargagamasamgamaya || saritsarovaridhivapikasu nimajjanonmajanamatrameva | punyaya cettarhi jalecaranam svargah pura syaditaresu pascat || tadaha-- ragadvesamadonmattah strinam ye vasavartinah | na te kalena suddhyanti snanatirthasatairapi || As regards Homa, it is impossible that the gods who feed on nectar and live in luxury in heaven should ever partake of oblations made in the fire. The expression agnimukhah, as applied to the gods, means 'those who have faces bright as fire', just as candramukhi kanya means 'a moon-faced girl'; but it does not mean, as is usually supposed, 'those who have Fire for mouth'. Yasodhara then refutes the charge that Jainism is a modern creed unknown to the Vedas and the Law Books, by citing a number of texts supposed to contain references to Jaina ascetics, images and doctrines. It is, accordingly, concluded that just as there are four oceans and six seasons, similarly there are four schools of thought and six systems of philosophy including, of course, the system of the Jainas." catvara ete sahajah samudra yathaiva loke rtavo'pi satu ca | catvara ete samayastathaiva sad darsananiti vadanti santah || The speaker next defends the custom of Jaina ascetics who eat standing and that of the Digambara ascetics, who wear no clothing owing to their determination not to possess anything. As for personal hygiene, 1 See Chapters XIII and XVIII. 2 See Chapter IX.

they carry a waterpot with them, and cleanse any particular limb that they carry a water-pot with them, and cleanse any particular limb that might be soiled. Surely, when a man is bitten by a snake on one of the fingers, he cuts off the finger and not the nose :m | yavat samartha vapurudbhatayam yavacca panidvayameti bandham | tavanmuninamasane pravrttirityasayena sthitabhojanaste || balakotavapi yatra samge niskricanatvam paramam na tisthet | mumuksavastatra katham nu kuryurmatim dukulajinavalkalesu || sasti | saucam nikamam munipumgavanam kamandaloh samsrayanat samasti | Yasodhara on cangulau sarpavidusitayam chinatti nasam khalu kascidatra || Yasodhara emphasizes the purity of the Jaina religion: vadanti jainastamihaptamete ragadayo yatra na santi dosah | The Jabias madyadisabdo'pi ca yatra dustah sistaih sa nindyeta katham nu dharmah || ssion and sach other The Jainas call him an Apta who is free from passion and such other blemishes. How can the cultured censure a religion wherein even terms like wine are condemned' ? The Arhat, free from passion, is contrasted with a Brahmanical god. The latter is blind with rage in dealing with enemies, and loves his wives: if such an individual is a god, the universe is full of gods: paresu yogesu manisayandhah pritim dadhatyatmaparigrahesu | reco tathapi devah sa yadi prasaktametajjagaddevamayam samastam || and honey; and ecounts Yasodhara then condemns the use of wine, flesh and honey; and recounts the evil consequences of drinking. varah ma lajja na sajja kusalam na silam srutam na putam na varah pracarah | of shame nor pr hose who amadyena mandikrtamanasanam vivekanasacca pisacabhavah || Hiety Those who are stupefied with drink have no sense of shame nor propriety of conduct nor knowledge of sacred lore nor commendable activities; they are as ghosts owing to the loss of the power of discernment.' The boater cor that the The authority of the Veda is next attacked. The speaker contends that the injunctions of the Veda are guided by the instincts of the crowd, and often self-contradictory. No sure clue is to be found in the Veda as to what is to be done and what avoided, and the Veda can in no sense be an authority for the world. yathajanakutamayam pravrttah paraspararthapratikulavrttah 18. vidhau nisedhe ca na niscayo'sti katham sa vedo jagatah pramanam || nds owd found An instance of how the Veda follows the instincts of the crowd is found in the fact that the common people desire to take meat, and the Veda sanctions meat-eating by prescribing certain rules for it, e. g., meat is to be taken after ceremonially sprinkling it with water in accordance with the desire of the Brahmanas, and it is also permissible to take it after worshipping the Manes and the gods. Similarly, the Veda legitimizes the lewd desires of certain people by sanctioning incest in the Gosava brahmanana tu 1 tatha hi mamsam cedacaritumicchasi acara | kim tu vidhipurvakamacaritavyam | tadaha - proksitam bhaksayenmamsam brahmananam tu kamyaya | '''arcayitva pitrn devan khadan mamsam na dusyati || 41

sacrifice, and there are also other instances in which the injunctions of the Veda follow the inclinations of the populace. This explains the universal popularity of the Veda, for no one who obeys the desires of the people is ever disliked. But men by nature lack the power of discrimination, and covet one another's wives and wealth, and what are we to think of a Scripture that sets itself to conform to their wishes? prasiddhirata evasya sarvasadharani mata | ko hi nama bhaved dvesyo loka cchandanuvartanah || hitahitavedi jagannisargatah parasparastridhanalolamanasam | tatrapi yadyagama esa tanmanovasena varteta tada kimucyate || There Instances of self-contradiction are found in the Veda. is a Vedic injunction against the drinking of wine and the killing of a Brahmana, but wine is nevertheless prescribed in the Sautramani sacrifice , and a Brahmana may be sacrificed to Brahman.3 Similarly, the Veda, after prohibiting a Brahmana from serving a Sudra or accepting food or the means of livelihood from him, asks the former to accept for sacrificial purposes the flesh of animals killed by Candalas, dogs, tigers and others.* Even in worldly affairs a person who is consistent in what he says is alone trusted, and who can have any respect for a scripture containing such conflicting statements? pramanam vyavahare'pi jantureka sthisirmatah | ko namettham viruddharthe sadaro nigame narah || 5 Yasodhara points out that independent discussion of the injunctions of the Veda, just as one discusses the scriptures composed by a known author, is held to be a great sin. But he asserts that it is absurd to say that a man is liable to sin as great as that of killing a Brahmana if he questions the authority of the statements of Manu, Vyasa and Vasistha, based on the Veda.º Yasodhara ridicules the suggestion that he should worship Siva or Visnu or the Sun. umapatih skanda pita trisuli samdhyasu yo nrtyati carmavasah | bhiksasano homajapopapannah katham sa devo'nyajanena tulyah || 'How can Siva be a god? He is just like other people. He is simply the husband of Parvati and the father of Kartikeya, carries a trident , and dances in the evening twilight. He is dressed in skins, and lives by begging and practises fire-oblation and mutters prayers.' 1010 AVA 10 harih punah ksatriya eva kascijayotirganaistulyaguno ravisva | bas Jas devau sta etau yadi muktimagaum prthusca somasca kutastatha na || 1 matari svasari va cet pravartitumicchasi pravartasva | kim tu vidhipurvakam pravartitavyam | yadaha - gosave etc. For the Gosava sacrifice see Chap.XIV. 2 evamanye'pi santi yathalokabhiprayam pravrttaste te vidhayah | 3 See Chap. XIV. 4: etc. See Chap. XVIII. 5 atha pauruseyagamavaccodanayam vicare mahat patakam | Lwal 6 tadaha - manavam vyasavasistham vacanam vedasamyutam | apramanam tu yo bruyat sa bhaved brahmaghatakah || '' ityetanmukhabhasitam |

Visnu again is just a Ksatriya, and the Sun has characteristics similar to those of the other planets. If those two are gods leading men to salvation, why is it that the Ksatriya Prthu and the moon, too, are not called gods?' asesametadvapusa bibharti dasavatarena sa vartate va | silaplavadapyati vismayaham matah katham samgatimangatidam || Visnu is said to sustain the entire universe within his body, and described also as existing in ten different Incarnations. This is far more astonishing than the floating of a stone on water. How can it, mother, be reconciled with facts?' svayam sa kusthi padayoh kilarkah paresu rogartiharasca citram | 3. aja paresam vinihanti vatam svayam tu vatena hi sa triyeta || 2909 176 It is strange that the Sun should be able to exterminate the suffering of others caused by disease, himself stricken with leprosy in the feet! (On the same principle) a she-goat, who (with her flesh) cures the gout of others, would herself die of gout!' Speaking of the Arhats, the omniscient world-teachers worshipped by the Jainas as divine beings, Yasodhara explains that the virtues of the Arhat are known from the Scripture composed by himself." The chain of emancipated Arhats and Scriptures is without beginning or end, like the cycle of creation, existence and destruction, or that of the seasons : winter, summer and the rains. Further, it is not absurd to hold that just as there are past, present and future kings, conversant with the three worlds, similarly there are present and future Aptas or Arhats; and plurality of this sort is surely found also in other faiths. sargasthitipratyavaharavrtterhimatapambhah samayasthiterva | adyanta bhavo'sti yatha na loke tathaiva muktagamamalikayah || bhuta bhavisyanti bhavanti canye lokatrayajnah kramasah ksitisah | yatha tathapta yadi ko viruddho bahutvamanyatra ca badhamasti || Yasodhara's mother, on hearing these words, says to herself that the time is gone when her son could be compelled to carry out her Addressing wishes by argument or threat or even a box in the ear. herself to her son, she extols his wisdom and learning, and appeals to him again to offer animal sacrifices to the tutelary goddess for counteracting the effect of the evil dream and preserving his own life. After citing some instances of sages and others who are known to have killed various living creatures for their own good,' she asserts that a king, pure in his motives , can never incur any sin, just as lotus leaves cannot be drenched with water or the sky bedaubed with mud. She then declares thus: visam visasyausadhamagniragneriyam prasiddhirmahati yathaiva | punyaya himsapi bhavettathaiva sarvatra he putra na saddhalani || 1 gunah kutastasya bhavanti gamyah, sastrat pranitat svayameva tena | 2 See Chapter XVII. to eigiouing ed

"It is very wellknown that poison is the remedy for poison, and fire for fire. On similar grounds, even destruction of life may lead to religious merit. The number of ploughs is not six on every plot, my child."10 religion Further, a person in the habit of probing a matter too much with minute investigation gains thereby nothing, and it is advisable to do as the world does, since the path followed by the many is the true path. is the true path. to do as the world does, since na kapi pumsah purusarthasiddhih suksmeksayativapariksakasya | ue path, jagatpravahena tu vartitavyam mahajano yena gatah sa panthah || Candramati goes on to praise the joys of wine and flesh-eating. Candramati goes vilasinivibhramadarpanani kandarpa samtarpanakaranani | sh-eating. ed kriyasramacchedakarani hatum madhuni ko nama sudhiryateta || matah sama manmathatattvavidbhirmrtah striyo madyavivarjitasca | ye bhunjate mamsarasena hinam te bhunjate kim nu na gomayena || of dung. 'What wise man would attempt to give up wine, the mirror of the graceful gestures of fair women, wine that excites love and removes fatigue? Women who abstain from wine are as good as dead in the opinion of adepts in erotic lore.fr And those who eat without the flavour of meat verily eat with that of dung.' those who eat without the flavour of vely ea Yasodhara's mother concludes her appeal by citing a number of Smrti verses on the subject of meat-offerings to the Manes. But the son remains unconvinced, and after a brief soliloquy makes his final declaration on the points at issue. and after a brief liloquy makes his final declar on the points ab is rajastamobhyam bahulasya pumsah papam satam naiva nidarsanaya | napyenasamasajatamapeksa jatau kule va rajasamivasti || jatirjara mrtyurathamayadya nrpesu canyesu samam bhavanti | punyairjanebhyo 'bhyadhikah ksitisa manusyabhave tvavisesa eva || yatha mama pranavadhe bhavatya mahanti duhkhani bhavanti matah | tatha paresamapi jivahanau bhavanti duhkhani tadambikanam || 'The sin committed by a man overpowered by evil propensities and delusion is no example for the good nor does supervening sin, like dust, make any distinction of family or caste. Birth, old age and death and disease and the like are common to kings and others. But kings are superior to other men in religious merit; no difference exists so far as the human aspect is concerned. Mother, just as thou wouldstar feel profound sorrow if I were killed, similarly the mothers of others would be would be aggrieved if their sons were to lose their lives." 1 The speaker means to say that there is no hard and fast rule that himsa in every case will lead to sin. hard and fast rule the hinau 2 The reference is to the sin of men like Gautama and Visvamitra who are said to have killed living creatures for preserving their own lives. vamites who are 3 Yasodhara refers to the religious responsibility of kings, which makes them uphold the principle of ahimsa. them uphold the himen sibility of kings,

Further, if it had been possible to save one's own life by taking the life of another, the kings of old would never have died; and if the sastric injunction sanctioning flesh-eating were to be applied universally, one would have to eat even the flesh of dogs and crows! would have to parasya jivema yadi svaraksa purve ksitisah kuta eva manuh | sastram tu sarvatra yadi pramanam svakakamamse'pi bhavet pravrttih || Yasodhara then attacks the belief that the sacrifice of animals leads to heaven: asodhara then attacks the belief to heaven: lolendriyairlokamano'nukulaih svajivanayagama esa srstah | svarge yadi syat pasuhimsakanam sunakrtam tarhi bhavet sa kamam || mantrena sastrairgalapidanadva vedyam bahiscapi vadhah samanah | svarge yadi syanmakhahimsitanam svabandhavairyajnavidhirna kim tu || This Vedic lore was created by sensual persons, favourable to the inclinations of the populace, in order to make their own living; and it is the butchers who would mostly go to heaven if that was the destination of those who killed animals in sacrificial rites. Killing is the same whether it is done at the altar or outside, whether it is accompanied by Vedic formulas or brought about by strangulation or weapons. If the animals killed in sacrifices go to heaven, why is it that one's kinsfolk are not sacrificed?' Yasodhara illustrates his point further by a story in which a goat, about to be sacrificed, is represented as saying to the priest: naham svargaphalopabhogatrsito nabhyarthitastvam maya samtustastrnabhaksanena satatam hantum na yuktam tava | svargam yanti yadi tvaya vinihata yajne dhruvam pranino yajnam kim na karosi matrpitrbhih putraistatha bandhavaih || 'I am not eager to enjoy the bliss of heaven nor have I asked thee for it. I am ever content with the eating of grass; it is not right for thee to kill me. Verily, if the animals slain by thee in sacrifices go to heaven, why dost thou not sacrifice thy parents, children and friends?' why dost Yasodhara's mother makes no further attempt her son, and falling at his feet, in spite of his remonstrances, entreats him to accept a compromise in the matter of sacrificing a cock at the altar Yasodhara agrees most unwillingly, of Candika and partaking of its flesh. and the debate comes to an end. flesh. to argue with the The discussion between Yasodhara and his mother belongs to a long series of texts wherein Jaina writers have attacked various tenets and practices of the Brahmanical religion, especially those connected with the sacrifice of animals in Vedic rites. There is in fact a whole literature of such attacks interspersed in Jaina writings in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but there are few as systematic and comprehensive as that in our work, not to speak of the dramatic realism which characterizes the dialogue. 16