Chapter 10 - Jaina dogmatics and moral and Spiritual discipline

Apart from the fact that one of the aims of Yasastilaka is to illustrate the doctrine of ahimsa, the work is designed to be a comprehensive manual of Jaina doctrines, and the object of Somadeva is to provide entertainment as well as religious instruction, and help forward the propagation of the Jaina faith. Books VI, VII and VIII of Yasastilaka, divided into fortysix kalpas or sections, are styled Upasakadhyayana or Readings for laymen, and deal elaborately with samyaktva or right faith and its various aspects as well as the different vows, which are viewed as the mainstay (upabrmhaka) of right faith. Somadeva's treatment of these topics is wider than that of many professed manuals on the subject, and what is more remarkable, illustrated in some cases by elaborate stories, which, although not original, In addition to the contents are narrated in a manner peculiarly his own. of Books VI-VIII, there are brief expositions of Jaina doctrines in Books IV and V, while the Anupreksas are treated in an elaborate body of verse in Book II. It is true that the Jaina canon and its doctrines had been fixed long before the tenth century, but the age of Somadeva was an era of systematization and interpretation; and judged from this standpoint , his comprehensive review of the salient topics of Jaina dogmatics has a definite place in the literature of Jainism in Sanskrit. I) Only a brief outline of Somadeva's exposition of Jaina dogma can be attempted in this chapter, and we may start with an interesting summary of the teachings of Jainism contained in a group of verses occurring in the dialogue between Yasodhara and his mother in Book IV. The summary is in the form of question and answer, and purports to report a conversation between Yasodhara and a Digambara saint on the tenets of " What is Dharma? That the Jaina religion. It is somewhat as follows: Who is Apta? He who is which inculcates kindness to all creatures, free from worldly blemishes. What is the means to know him? A sastra free from contradictory statements. What constitutes religious austerities? Extermination of all desire for worldly objects. What is jiva? That which possesses self-experienced attributes such as the intellectual faculty. How does the incorporeal jiva come into contact with the body? It is bound to the body by its own actions, just as the sky comes into contact with the dust raised by wind; and by its own actions it is subjected to birth in order that it may suffer their consequences, just as a learned Brahmin is made to tumble over an unclean substance by intoxicating drugs. How can Dharma be acquired? By observing the vows to the best of one's

ability. What is a vow? The extermination of desire preceded by the acquisition of faith. What is faith? Reasoned belief in the categories (recognised by Jainism). What are the categories? They are the agencies which uphold the universe"." 2 The great discourse on Samyaktva or Right faith in Book VI opens with a further definition of Dharma, which is described as the factor causing human advancement resulting in supreme beatitude. It consists of pravrtti and nivrtti, and applies to householders as well as monks. Pravrtti is endeavour to attain salvation, while Nivrtti is abstention from all that leads to worldly bondage. Faith, knowledge and conduct are the causes of salvation; while worldly bondage is caused by false doctrine, non-abstention (from injury, theft etc.), passions (anger, pride, greed and deceit), and yoga or the activity of body, mind and speech. Samyaktva or faith is concentration on things that conform to reason; knowledge is that which is free from ignorance, doubt and error; and right conduct is complete cessation of all activity that leads to the acquisition of Karma. We are also told at the end of Book VI that Samyaktva is faith in the fundamental principles; knowledge is determining the nature of the fundamental principles; and conduct is complete detachment, devoid of all action whatsoever. Right faith, right knowledge and right conduct are the most important factors in the Jaina view of liberation. As Kundakunda says in Samayasara (verse 162), Samyaktva is faith in the soul and the other categories; the comprehension of their nature is (right) knowledge; and the renunciation of desire, passions etc. is (right) conduct, the three constituting the path to salvation. It may be noted that Somadeva does not discourse on knowledge and conduct, but expounds Samyaktva in detail. 5 1 ko bhagavanniha dharmom yatra daya bhupa sarvasattvanam | ko namapto yatra hi na santi samsarika dosah || tajjnane ke upayah sastram yaccaikavakyatayatam | tarhi tapah kim visayavyasamgavinigraho yatra || jivah ko yatraite bhavanti buddhyadayah svasamvedyah | tasyamurtasya satah sarirabandhah katham bhavati || svakrtaih karmabhiresa prayati jivah sarirabandham va | vateritaih paragairbhavati yatha samgamo namah || taireva garbhavase sa niyate nijaphalopabhogartham | asucini madanadravyairnipatyate srotriyo yadvat || asma- drsam sa dharmah katham tu nijasaktito vratagrahanat | kim vratamiha vanchaya yo darsanapurvako niyamah || kim darsanamidamahurya sraddha yuktitah padarthesu | ke punarami padartha yairetadvartate jagaccakram || P. 103. 2 yasmadabhyudayah pumsam nihsreyasaphalasrayah | vadanti viditamnayastam dharma dharmasurayah || sa pravrttinivrttyatma grhasthetara - gocarah | pravrttirmuktihetau syannivrttirbhavakaranat || P. 268. 3 samyaktvajnanacaritratrayam moksasya karanam | samsarasya ca mimamsyam mithyatvadicatustayam || samyaktvam bhavanama huryuktiyuktesu vastusu | mohasamdehavibhrantivarjitam jnanamucyate || karmadananimittayah kriyayah paramam samam | caritrocitacaturyasca- rucaritramucire || 4. rucistattvesu samyaktvam jnanam tattvanirupanam | audasinyam param prahurvrttam sarvakriyojjhitam || P. 326. 5 jivadisahahanam sammattam tesimadhigamo nanam | ragadipariharanam caranam eso du mokukhapaho |

248 6 YASASTILAKA AND INDIAN CULTURE II) The whole of Book VI, after a preliminary discourse on the doctrines of other schools of thought, is devoted to the interpretation of Samyaktva, the great tutelary deity of man' (naranam mahati purusadevata). Samyaktva or Right Faith depends upon a certain attitude of mind produced by the realisation of the nature of the categories, just as gold is said to be produced by the mere contact of fire with specially treated mercury. It is not necessary to master the scriptures or subject the body to austerities or journey elsewhere or wait for the lapse of time for acquiring Samyaktva. It is the prime cause of salvation; just as the foundation is the mainstay of a palace, good luck that of beauty, life that of bodily enjoyment, royal power that of victory, culture that of nobility, and policy that of government." Samyaktva is primarily faith in Apta, Agama and the Padarthas or Categories. It may be produced in two ways, has eight components, and is characterised by prasama and other qualities, and free from erroneous beliefs (mudhatva). Before considering the various aspects of Samyaktva, Somadeva explains in detail the nature of Apta , Agama Padarthas (VI. 2, 3.). and the III) The Apta, as the Jaina Tirthamkaras are generically called, is defined as omniscient and free from all blemishes; he is the lord of the He extricates the world from universe and the benefactor of all creatures.² the ocean of suffering by teaching the fundamental truths, and is therefore to be regarded as the lord of the universe, whom the three worlds obey. He is pure and free from the eighteen defects common to all living creatures such as hunger, thirst, fear, passion, birth, old age, disease, death, anger, sorrow, sleep etc., and is endowed with infinite knowledge, and is the only source of words of wisdom. Passion, hatred and ignorance are the cause of telling a lie, but as the Apta is free from these, he has no occasion for uttering a falsehood.5 He resembles in shape the heterogeneous creatures (i. e. men), is a mirror unto the universe, and the master of the worlds. 4 1 'tasmadadhisthanamiva prasadasya, saubhagyamiva rupasampadah pranitamiva bhogayatanopacarasya, mulabalamiva vijaya prapteh, vinita ' tvamivabhijatyasya, nayanusthanamiva rajyasthiterakhilasyapi paralokodaharanasya samyaktvameva nanu prathamam karanam grnanti gariyamsah | P. 274. 2 sarvasam sarvalokesam sarvadosavivarjitam | sarvasattvahitam prahuraptamaptamatocitah || 3 yastattvadesanadduhkhavartheruddharate jagat | katham na sarvalokesah prahvibhutajagattrayah || P. 274. 4 ksut pipasa bhayam dvesascintanam mudhatagamah | rago jara ruja mrtyuh krodhah khedo mado ratih || vismayo jananam nidra visado'stadasa dhruvah | trijagatsarvabhutanam dosah sadharana ime || ebhirdosairvinirmuktah so'yamapto niranjanah | sa eva hetuh suktinam kevalajnanalocanah || 5 ragadva dvesadva mohadva vakyamucyate hyanrtam | yasya tu naite dosastasyanrtakaranam nasti || P. 274. 6 uccavacaprasutinam sattvanam sadrsakrtih | ya adarsa ivabhati sa eva jagatam patih ||

For various reasons such as subjection to passion, Brahma, Visnu, Siva, the Sun-god, or the Buddha cannot claim to be the Apta. Brahma is attached to the nymph Tilottama, and Visnu devoted to Laksmi, while Siva has Parvati forming half his body, and yet they are called Aptas! Vasudeva was the father of Krsna, and Devaki was his mother, and he himself fulfilled the duties of a king; yet, strangely enough, he is called a god! Further, if the universe exists in his stomach, and he himself is omnipresent, how can he be subject to birth and death? As regards Siva, being subject to worldly blemishes like passion in his corporeal form, he lacks the authority to propound a religious code; while, in his incorporeal form, Sadasiva, he lacks the capacity to do so. Besides, with his five mouths, he teaches mutually contradictory doctrines, of which it would be impossible to ascertain the meaning. It is said that a portion of Sadasiva becomes incarnate in Rudra in every age; but in that case there would be no difference between the two forms of the deity (the one incorporeal and the other endowed with physical form), just as there cannot be any difference between gold and a fragment of it. It is also strange that the deity should indulge in such freaks as begging, dancing, nudity, the destruction of the Three Cities, the killing of The Saiva system, Brahma and the carrying of a human skull in his hands." its principles and the nature of its Omniscient deity constitute, therefore, a strange medley of contradictions in respect of the basic doctrine, methods of proof, poetical representation and actual practice.³ With regard to Sun-worship, it is strange that the sun alone should be worshipped and not the moon, although the latter also is a planet: the cult surely represents the thoughtless activity of people who have never examined the Truth.* As for the Buddhist, he favours indulgence and continence as well as unrestrained indulgence, and is addicted to wine and flesh: how can he be respected by the wise? It seems to be the object of 1 druhinadhoksajesanasakyasurapurahsarah | yadi ragadyadhisthanam katham tatraptata bhavet || ajastilottama cittah sriratah sripatih smrtah | ardhanarisvarah sambhustathasyesam kilaptata | vasudevah pita yasya savitri devaki hareh | svayam ca rajadharmasthascitram devastathapi sah || trailokyam jathare yasya yasca sarvatra viyate | vimutpattivipatti stam kvacittasyeti cintyatam || 2 kapadim dosavanesa nihsarirah sadasivah | apramanyavasaktesca katham tatragamagamah || parasparaviruddharthamisvarah pancabhirmukhaih | sastram sasti bhavettatra katamarthaivinisvayah || sadasivakala rudre yathayati yuge yuge | katham svarupabhedah syat kancanasya kalasviva || bhaiksanartanananatvam puratrayabilopanam | brahmahatya kapalitvametah kridah kilesvare || P. 275. 3 siddhante'nyat pramane'nyadanyat kavye'nyadihite | tattvamaptasvarupam ca vicitram saivadarsanam || P. 276. 4 grahagotragato'pyesa pusa pujyo na candramah | avicaritatasvasya jantorvrttinirankusa || om dvaitadvaitasrayah sakyah samkaranukrtagamah | katham manisibhirmanyastarasasavasaktadhih || P. 276. Ms. A says gamyaga- myayoh pravrttipariharasuddhih dvaitam | sarvatra pravrttinirankusatvamadvaitam | Cf. Nyayakusumanjali, chap. II : napi bhaksyapeyadyadvaitaragah Varadaraja says in his commentary - bhaksyasya peyasya va bhaksena peyena ca saha dvaitam nasti kimtu sarva bhaksyam va peyam caikatvameveti kamayamana iti 32

Somadeva to show that lack of passion or renunciation is an essential condition of Apta-hood, and no faith which does not inculcate absolute renunciation can be said to have an Apta or trustworthy spiritual overlord. It may also be noted that the question of Apta was an important controversial issue between the Saivas and the Jainas, and their respective arguments, which Somadeva here analyses, have been summarized in Chap. VIII. IV) Agama or a religious code can be pure only if the Apta is pure, just as children are pure when their parents are of pure descent.1 An Agama, which does not conform to reason owing to contradictory statements, is like the raving of a mad man, and can have no authority." The true Agama is so called because it makes us comprehend (gamayan) things relating to the present, past and future by occupying itself with the problems of religious virtue, material prosperity, desires and liberation, and pointing out what is to be shunned and what accepted.³ The Jaina Agama deals with five categories: the self, the non-self, the constitution of the universe, and bondage and liberation with their causes.* The Self is the knower and the seer, great and subtle, and acts and suffers. It is coextensive with the body, and ascendant by nature." It is endowed with knowledge and discernment, without which it would be in no way different from a lifeless object. On the other hand, if it be regarded as pure knowledge, it would not have any definite idea, like the painted figure of a man that is neither friend nor foe. Karma is directed by the Self and the Self is directed by Karma; they are like the boat and the boatman and have no one else to direct them." The Self is, by nature, endowed with unlimited power, although it is confined within the body, like a mystic formula circumscribed by the letters of which it is composed. Ajiva or the non-self comprises Dharma, Adharma, Space, Time and Pudgala or Matter. Dharma is the underlying principle of motion, Adharma that of rest, Space that of non-resistance, and Time that of 1 pitroh suddhau yathapatya visuddhiriha drsyate | tathaptasya visuddhatve bhavedagamasuddhata || P. 278. 2 purvaparavirodhena yastu yuktaya ca badhyate | mattonmattavacahprakhyah sa pramanam kimagamah || P. 279, 3 heyopadeyarupena caturvargasamasrayat | kalatrayagatanarthan gamayannagamah smrtah || 4 atmanatmasthitirloko bandhamoksau sahetukau | agamasya nigadyante padarthastattvavedibhih || 5 jnata drasta mahan suksmah krtibhuktayoh svayam prabhuh | bhogayatanamatro'yam svabhavadurdhvagah puman || 6 jnanadarsanasunyasya na bhedah syadacetanat | jnanamatrasya jivasya naikadhiscitramitravat || 7 preryate karma jivena jivah preryeta karmana | etayoh prerako nanyo naunavikasamanayoh || 8 See also Chapter VIII. 9 mantravanniyato'pyeso'cintyasaktih svabhavatah !

change; while Pudgala or Matter is endowed with form, touch, taste, smell and colour.¹ Bandha or bondage is due to the mutual infiltration of Karma and the Self, and their relation is like that of gold and rust. Bondage has no beginning, but has an end." There are four different aspects of bondage according to prakrti or the nature of karma, of which there are eight varieties, sthiti or the duration of each kind of karma in contact with the soul; anubhaga or the consequences of karma; and pradesa or the number of karmic molecules that enter the soul.4 It may be noted that Somadeva merely enumerates the different aspects of Bandha which is treated in detail in the Tattvarthadhigamasutra, chap. VIII. Moksa or liberation is the coming of the Self into its own after shedding all inner impurities. Liberation is not non-existence nor lack of consciousness." Somadeva gives two other definitions of the Jaina view of liberation. In VI. 1 he defines moksa as a state characterised by supreme joy, knowledge, power, potency and subtleness in the highest degree. In VIII. 39 moksa is defined as the state in which the Self acquires its own charac teristics." Lack of The Three jewels (Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct) are the causes of salvation, while bondage is caused by false views, lack of self-restraint and other factors such as passions and yoga or the vibrations produced in the soul by the activities of mind, body and speech. faith in Apta, Agama and the Padarthas, error and doubt constitute Mithyatva or false views. Taking only one aspect of a matter into consideration, doubt, lack of discrimination, erroneous notions, equal respect for all deities and faiths: these five also constitute Mithyatva, as they contribute towards worldly bondage." It may be noted that Somadeva seems here to 1 dharmadhama namah kalah pudgalasceti pancamah | ajivasabdavacyah syurete vividhaparyayah || gatisthityapratighataparinama nibandhanam | catvarah sarvavastunam rupadyatma ca pudgalah || P. 280. 2 anyonyanupravesena bandhah karmatmanormatah | anadih savasanasca kalika svarnayoriva || 3 jnanavaraniya Knowledge obscuring, darsanavaraniya Conation-obscuring, mohaniya Deluding, antaraya Obstructive, nama Body-forming, gotra Family-determining, vedaniya Feeling, ayuh Age. See Tattvarthadhigamasutra, chap. VIII. 4 prakrtisthityanubhagapradesapravibhagatah | caturdha bhidyate bandhah sarvesameva dehinam || 5 atmalabham vidurmoksam jivasyantarmalaksayat | nabhavo napyacaitanyam na caitanyamanarthakam || P 280. 6 anando jnanamaisvarya viryam paramasuksmata | etadatyantikam yatra sa moksah parikirtitah || P. 273. 7 See Section XII (d). 8 bandhasya karanam proktam mithyatva samyamadikam | ratnatrayam tu moksasya karanam samprakirtitam || 9 aptagamapadarthanamasraddhanam viparyayah | samsayasca tridha proktam mithyatvam malinatmanam || 10 ekantasamsayajnanam vyatyasavinayasrayam | bhavapaksavipaksatvanmithyatvam pancadha smrtam ||

follow Pujyapada's commentary on Tattvarthasutra VIII. 1. Absence of vows, carelessness, cruelty, lack of contentment, and subservience to the dictates of The the senses are collectively called Asamyama or lack of self-restraint." four passions, anger, pride, deceit and greed, with their four varieties, plunge the creatures into the sea of transmigration; and activities connected with the mind, speech and the body, according as they are good and bad, are the factors which attach virtues and vices to the Self,a 3 The next Padartha is the universe, which is, in the Jaina view, without foundation or support, uncreated and free from destruction: it is situated in the midst of space, and rests on air (that is, on the three atmospheres of dense liquid, gross air and thin air). Somadeva records the criticism of this theory by other schools of thought. The Jainas, they say , do not regard the universe with the earth, mountains and oceans as being fixed anywhere nor do they believe that it is upheld by a fish or a tortoise or a serpent or a boar (as in Brahmanical mythology): so they fancy air as upholding the unsupported universe, an absolutely foolhardy proposition. How can air that cannot uphold even clods of earth, wood and similar substances uphold the universe? Somadeva tries to refute this objection by pointing out that the clouds which inundate the universe with rainwater are kept aloft in the sky solely by the force of air. 4 V) Somadeva goes on to say that those who hold false opinions, not being able to find fault with the conception of Apta, Agama and the Padarthas, censure Jaina (Digambara) ascetics for abstaining from bath and ablutions and going about naked and eating their food standing. He tries to defend each of these practices, and says with regard to bathing that it is useless for ascetics, who observe chastity, and are bent on a spiritual way of life. Besides, they do take a bath to avoid pollution caused by contact with Kapalikas , women in Similarly, wholesale ablutions are their periods, Candalas and Sabaras." superfluous on the ground that it is necessary to wash only the limb which 1. atratitvam pramaditvam nirdayatvamatrptata | indriyecchanuvatitvam santah praddurasamyamam || 2 kasayah krodhamanadyaste catvarascaturvidhah | samsara sindhusampatahetavah praninam matah || manovakkaya karmani subhasubha- vibhedatah | bhavanti punyapapanam bandhakaranamatmani || 3 niradharo niralambah pavamanasamasrayah | nabhomadhyasthito lokah srstisamhara varjitah || 4 niradharo niralambah pavamanasamasrayah | nabhomadhyasthito lokah srstisamharavarjitah || atha matam - naiva lagnam jagat kapi bhubhubhrambhodhinirbharam | dhatarasca na yujyante matsyakurmahipotrinah || evamalocya lokasya niralambasya dharane | kalpyate pavano jainairityetat sahasam mahat || yo hi vayurna sakto'tra lostakasthadidharane | trailokyasya katham sa syaddharanavasaraksamah || tadasat | ye plavayanti paniyairvistapam sacaracaram | meghaste vatasamarthyat kim na vyomni samasate || P. 281. 5 amajjanamanacamo nagnatvam sthitibhojita | mithyadrso vadantyetanmunerdosacatustayam || 6 brahmacaryopapannanamadhyatmacaracetasam | muninam snanamapraptam dose tvasya vidhirmatah || samge kapalikatreyicandala- sabaradibhih | aplutya dandavat samyagjapenmantramupositah ||

gets actually soiled; no one, for instance, cuts off the nose when a finger is bitten by a serpent. As regards nakedness, it is urged that the wise hate what is artificial, but not the observance of what is natural. Nakedness is natural: where is the ground to hate it?2 Further, it would be impossible for the ascetics to observe the vows of non-possession and non-injury if they desired to wear robes made of barks or deer-skins.³ As for the custom of taking food standing, Somadeva says that its observance does not lead to heaven nor does the failure to observe it lead to hell. The custom merely marks a certain resolution of an ascetic: I will take food only so long as it comes to the hollow of my palm and I am able to take it standing; otherwise I will abstain from food altogether,'4 VI) After dealing with the essential Jaina doctrines and the custom of the Digambara munis, Somadeva enumerates a large number of religious practices, repugnant to Jainism, and collectively called Mudha or Stupid customs and beliefs, from which Samyaktva or Right faith must be absolutely free. They are sun-worship; bath during eclipses; giving away money on samkranti days; the morning and evening ablutions; fire-worship; the worship of edifices; ceremonial bathing in rivers and the ocean; adoration of trees, stupas, and sacred offerings of boiled rice; religious suicide by falling from a precipice; bowing at the tail of a cow and taking cow's urine; and the worship Associof jewels, conveyances, weapons, the earth, Yaksas and mountains." ation with heretics of other faiths and the adherents of the Vedas also comes within the scope of Mudha of which there are many varieties. To attribute divinity to what is not divine, to adopt as a vow what is not really a vow, 1 yadevangamasuddham syadadbhih sodhyam tadeva hi | angulau sarpadastayam na hi nasa nikrtyate || 2 vikare vidusam dveso navikaranuvartane | tannagnatve nisargotthe ko nama dvesakalmasah || 3 naiskimcanyamahimsa ca kutah samyaminam bhavet | te samgaya yadihante valkalajinavasasam || 4 na svargaya sthiterbhuktirna svabhrayasthiteh punah | kim tu samyamiloke'smin sa pratijnarthamisyate || panipatram milatyetacchaktisca sthitibhojane | yavattavadaham bhunje rahamyaharamanyatha || P. 282. 5 suryaghom grahanasnanam samkrantau dravinavyayah | samdhya sevagnisatkaro gehadehardhano vidhih || nadinadasamudresu majjanam dharmemcetasam | tarustupagrabhaktanam vandanam bhrgusamsrayah || goprsthantanamaskarastanmutrasya nisevanam | ralavahanabhuyaksa sastraraula- disevanam || P. 282. 6 samayantarapakhandavedalokasamasrayam | evamadi vimudhanam jneyam mudhamanekadha || Mudha or Mudhata corresponds to what is called 'alien cultus' in Judaism, covering heathenism and all that it implies, the worship or acknowledgement of any deity except the true God, veneration of images, and all the customs associated with heathen religions. 'Alien cultus' or heathenism is one of the three deadly sins in Judaism, the others being unchastity in all its forms and homicide. Moore: Judaism, vol. I, p. 466; vol. II, p.267. Jainism, on the other hand, appears to treat heathonism as an error of judgment, and keeps it distinct from the cardinal sins envisaged by the Anuvratas.

and to accept as the truth what is not a truth at all constitute Mithyatva or falsehood, which has to be renounced." Somadeva defines in this connection the attitude of Jainism towards novices. If a convert to Jainism cannot altogether renounce all his false beliefs, he ought to be given a mixed reception, but it is not advisable to discard him altogether. On the other hand, persons who are wicked by nature should not be induced to accept the Jaina doctrine, but proper consideration should be shown to those who voluntarily adopt the faith³ (VI. 4). VII) Somadeva next deals with the angas or auxiliaries of Samyaktva, but it will be convenient to summarize first the different aspects of the doctrine enumerated in the concluding section of Book VI. First, Samyaktva or Right faith may be realised naturally i. e. by intuition with but little effort or acquired from external sources with great effort. Samyaktva is said to be naturally produced when faith in the fundamental principles of Jainism comes into being 'without the suffering attendant on mental wanderings in the wilderness of deliberation', as a result, for instance, of remembering previous births, or hearing religious discourses, or meditating on the image of a Jaina Tirthamkara, or witnessing great religious festivals, or any other similar cause. Samyaktva is said to be acquired when faith in the tattvas comes into being after a long time, as a result of great efforts made in thoroughly investigating all the scriptural texts," which can only be understood with the help of methodical instruction by a wise teacher. Secondly, Samyaktva may be of two, three and ten kinds according to the standpoint from which it is viewed, but faith in the fundamental principles is the common feature of all its phases.³ a) Samyaktva may be of two kinds, saraga or accompanied by desire and vitaraga or free from desire. It is saraga up to the eleventh gunasthana or stage of spiritual development; it is vitaraga in the last three stages. Saraga Samyaktva has certain fundamental characteristics such as prasama etc., while Vitaraga Samyaktva is characterised by the absolute purity of the soul." 1 adeve devatabuddhimatrate vratabhavanam | atattve tattvavijnanamato mithyatvamutsrjet || 2 tathapi yadi mudhatvam na tyajet ko'pi sarvatha | misratvenanumanyo'sau sarvanaso na sundarah || 3 na svato jantavah prerya durihah syurjinagame | svata eva pravrttanam tadyogyanugraho matah || 4 nisargo'dhigamo vapi tadaptau karanadvayam | samyaktvabhak puman yasmadalpanalpaprayasatah || P. 322. 5 'nisargat samjatamityucyate '. 6 'adhigamadavirbhutamityucyate '. 7 'yada samastesvaitihyesu pariksopaksepadatikkisyacirena tattvesu rucih samjayate '. 8 dvividham trividham dasavidhamahuh samyaktvamatmahitamatayah | tattvasraddhanavidhih sarvatra ca tatra samavrttih || P. 322. 9 saragavitaragatmavisayatvad dvidha smrtam | prasamadigunam purvam param catmavisuddhibhak || Ms. A romarks. ekadasa- gunasthanaparyantam saragam dvadasadi vitaragam .

Somadeva observes that just as the virility of a man, which cannot be perceived with the senses, can be ascertained from his relations with women, or the generation of children, or his fortitude in danger, or the execution of his designs; similarly, the existence of the Jewel of Right Faith, although extremely subtle owing to its being a condition of the soul, may be inferred from the qualities of Prasama, Samvega, Anukampa and Astikya." Prasama is restraining the mind from passions and other evil tendencies. Samvega is fear caused by worldly existence, the source of all kinds of sufferings, and fleeting like a dream or a magic show. As Hemacandra observes in his Yogasastra 2. 15, Samvega is man's longing for liberation. Anukampa is kindness to all creatures; it is the fundamental basis of dharma.+ Astikya is a believing attitude of the mind towards the Apta, the scriptures, the vows and the fundamental principles. Somadeva concludes by saying that long is the worldly bondage of the man who is subject to the fury of the passions, devoid of vows, cruel and unbelieving. It may be added that some writers mention another characteristic of Samyaktva, nirveda or indifference to the world." it b) Samyaktva may be of three kinds according as it is accompanied by the destruction of the karmas or their abatement or the process of partial abatement and destruction.³ Somadeva does not treat the topic in detail, but may be noted that Samyaktva, viewed from this standpoint, is classified into ksayika, aupasamika and ksayopasamika, the characteristics of which are explained in detail in Pujyapada's commentary on Tattvarthasutra II. 3-5. Briefly speaking, Ksayika Samyaktva is caused by the destruction of seven particular kinds of karma; Aupasamika Samyaktva is caused by the mitigation of the four passions and the three kinds of darsanamoha; and Ksayopasamika Samyaktva is caused by the mitigation of the existing four passions and mithyatva and samyaktvamithyatva and the destruction of their germs. c) Samyaktva may also be of ten kinds according to the sources from which it is derived. These sources are ajna, the command of the scriptures 1 ' yatha hi purusasya purusasaktiriyamatindriyapyanganajanangasambhogenapatyotpadanena ca vipadi dhairyavalambanena va prarabdha- vastunirvahanena va niscetum sakyate, tathatmasvabhavatayatisuksmayatnamapi samyaktvaratnam prasamasamveganukampastikyai rekavakyai • kalayitum sakyam | ' 2 yadragadisu dosesu cittavrttinibarhanam | tam prahuh prasamam prasah samastatratabhusanam || 3 sariramanasagantu vedanaprabhavad bhavat | svaprendrajalasamkalpad bhitih samvega ucyate || P. 323. 4. sattve sarvatra cittasya dayardratvam dayalavah | dharmasya paramam mulamanukampam pracaksate || 5 apte srute vrate tattve cittamastitvasamstutam | astikyamastikairuktam muktiyuktidhare nare || 6 ragarosadhare nityam nirvrate nirdayatmani | samsaro dirghasarah syannare nastikanitike || 7 Hemacandra (op. cit.) says: 8 karmanam ksayatah santeh ksayopasamatastatha | sraddhanam trividham vodhyam gatau sarvatra jantusu || P. 323.

composed by the exalted and omniscient Arhat or Tirthamkara; marga, the investigation of the Three Jewels of Right Faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct; upadesa, listening to the life-stories of the great men of old such as the Tirthamkaras, the Cakravartins etc.; sutra, the code regulating the conduct and behaviour of the ascetics; bija, a clue to the understanding of all sections of the doctrine; samksepa, summary knowledge of the main topics of the system, Apta, sutra or the sacred canon, the vows and the categories; vistara, comprehensive knowledge of the vast canonical literature consisting of the twelve Angas, the fourteen Purvas and the Prakirnas; artha, personal conviction in matters connected with the sacred lore; avagadha, profound knowledge of some part of the threefold Canon; and paramavagadha, the conviction of a man possessing the three kinds of supernatural knowledge, viz., avadhi, manahparyaya and kevala. Samyaktva is thus tenfold according to the source from which it is derived, and we have therefore ten types of Samyaktva : margasamyaktva, sutrasamyaktva, arthasamyaktva and so on. In early literature the above ten aspects of Samyaktva are dealt with in Uttaradhyayanasutra XXVIII. 16 ff., although some of the sources are differently given : ' Faith is produced by 1. nisarga, nature ; 2. upadesa, instruction ; 3. ajna, command; 4. sutra, study of the sutras; 5. bija, suggestion; 6. abhigama, comprehension of the meaning of the sacred lore; 7. vistara, complete course of 'study; 8. kriya, religious exercise ; 9. samksepa, brief exposition; 10. dharma, the Law. The Sutra defines each of these factors in detail, and later writers explain them in their own way. The following verse, quoted by Somadeva in Yasastilaka VI. 21, being enumeration of the ten kinds of Samyaktva, occurs in Gunabhadra's atmanusasana. ajnamargasamudbhavamupadesatsutrabijasamksepat | vistararthabhyam bhavamavaparamavadigadham ca || Gunabhadra clearly explains the ten kinds of Samyaktva in the following verses (ibid. 12-14) : ajnasamyaktvamuktam yaduta virucitam vitaragajnayaiva tyaktagranthaprapancam sivamamrtapatham sradhanmohasanteh | margasraddhanamahuh purusavarapuranopadesopajata ya samjnanagamabdhiprasrtibhirupadesadiradesi drstih || akarnya carasutram municaranavidheh sucanam sraddadhanah suktasau sutradrstirduradhigamagaterarthasarthasya bijaih | kaiscijatopalabdherasamasamavasad bijadrstih padarthan samksepenaiva buddhva rucimupagatavan sadhu samksepadrstih || yah srutva dvadasangi krtaruciratha tam viddhi vistaradrstim samjatarthat kutascit pravacanavacananyantarenarthadrstih | drstih sangangabahyapravacanamavagahyotthita yavagadha kaivalyalokitarthe ruciriha paramabadigadeti rudha || 1 Somadeva says: bhagavadarhatsarvajna pranitagamanujnasamjna ajna, ratnatrayavicarasaga margah, puranapurusacaritasravana- bhinivesa upadesah, yatijanacarananirupanapatram sutram, sakalasamayadalasucanavyajam bijam, aptasrutavratapadarthasama- salapaksepah samksepah, dvadasangacaturdasa purvaprakirna vistirnasrutarthasamarthana prastaro vistarah, pravacanavisaye svapratyayasamartho'rthah, trividhasyagamasya nihsesato'nyatamadesavagahali dhamavagadham avadhimanahparyaya kevaladhikapurusapratyayaprarudham paramavagadham | P. 323, 2 Jacobi: Jaina Sutras, Part II, p. 154.

VIII) Somadeva enumerates twentyfive hindrances to Samyaktva, known as drgdosah: the three kinds of mudha or mudhata, the eight madas, the six anayatanas, and the eight defects, samka etc. He does not explain any of these except the group of eight defects. The three kinds of mudha are lokamudha consisting of stupid popular customs such as dips in sacred water; devamudha or the worship of false deities, ghosts, spirits and the like; and samayamudha or following the lead of those who profess false doctrines such as astrology, magic lore etc. The eight kinds of mada or pride are pride of birth, family, beauty, wealth, intellect, knowledge of the scripture, honour and power respectively, as explained in the Bhasya on Tattvarthasutra IX. 6. What is not ayatana or abode (of right faith) is anayatana. The six anayatanas are a false deity subject to passion and hate; the followers of such a deity; false austerities; those who practise such austerities; false scriptures; and the followers of such scriptures. The group of eight defects consists of samka, kamksa, vicikitsa, mudhadrsti, lack of upaguhana, lack of sthitikara, lack of vatsalya and lack of prabhavana. These will be explained later. 3 After enumerating the twentyfive hindrances to Samyaktva, Somadeva points out that a man of right conduct, who possesses right faith, and is conversant with the fundamental truths, attains salvation, even though he is devoid of vows; while a man without faith can never attain salvation, even though he observes the vows. External functions and external karma are mere agencies: when the three Jewels (Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct) are mature, the soul becomes impregnated with them." Right knowledge is not derived from the senses nor right faith from delusion nor right conduct from the body: when the soul attains the supreme bliss of liberation, it simply becomes one with those three. It will be seen that right faith, right knowledge and right conduct are regarded as conditions of the soul, which is, in the ultimate resort, identified with them. Nemicandra puts the idea clearly in his Dravyasamgraha (verse 39) when he says that, from the ordinary point of view, right faith, knowledge and conduct are the causes of salvation, but in reality one's own soul is the cause of liberation, consisting says as it does of those three. Among early writers Kundakunda in 1 mudhatrayam madascastau tathanayatanani sat | astau sankadayasceti drgdosah pancavimsatih || P. 324, 2 See Brahmadeva's commentary on Dravyasamgraha, verse 41. 3 niscayocitacaritrah sudrstistatvakovidah | avratastho'pi muktistho na vratastho'pyadarsanah || P. 324. 4. bahiskriya bahiskarma karanam kevalam bhavet | ratnatrayasamrddhah syadatma ratnatrayatmakah || 5 aksajjnanam rucirmohaddehadvrttam ca nasti yat | atmanyasmivisavibhute tasmadatmaiva tat trayam || 6 sammadamsana nanam caranam mokkhassa karanam jane | bavahara niccayado tattiyamaio nio appa || 33

Samayasara (verse 19) that a saint should always resort to (right) belief, knowledge and conduct; these three are in reality nothing but the soul itself." The same author says in Niyamasara (verse 96) that the soul is to be meditated upon as consisting of pure knowledge, pure faith, joy and pure consciousness.² As has already been said, Somadeva deals only with Samyaktva or Samyagdarsana, Right faith, and regards it as the corner-stone of the entire system of Jaina religion and ethics. After dealing with the various aspects of Samyaktva, he sums them up in the following verse occurring in Yasastilaka VIII. 35. tattvesu pranayah paro'sya manasah sraddhanamuktam jinairetadvitridasaprabhedavisayam vyaktam caturbhirgunaih | astangam bhuvanatrayarcitamidam mudhairapodham tribhiscitte deva dadhami samsrtilatollasavasanotsavam || The different kinds of Samyaktva, two, three and ten, as the case may be, and its four characteristics, referred to in the verse, have already been explained. Samyaktva should also be free from the three types of mudha, that is lokamudha, devamudha, and samayamudha (see above). Besides, it has eight angas which are elaborately explained and illustrated by Somadeva in Yasastilaka VI. 5-20. IX) The eight angas or auxiliaries of Samyaktva are freedom from samka, freedom from kamksa or akamksa, freedom from vicikitsa or vininda, freedom from anyaslagha or mudhata, upaguha, sthitikara, prabhavana and vatsalya. Conversely, samka, kamksa, vicikitsa, mudhata and lack of upaguha, lack of sthitikara, lack of prabhavana and lack of vatsalya form a group of defects which hamper the growth of Samyaktva, and are included among the twentyfive drgdosah. Somadeva's account of the angas of Samyaktva are summarised below. S'amka, akamksa, vininda and anyaslagha are the four obstacles to the growth of Samyaktva or Right Faith. S'amka is fear or hesitation, which causes lack of resolution and the consequent inability to follow in a steadfast manner the chosen doctrine or vow. The story of the fickle sage Jamadagni is meant to illustrate this failing, while Jinadatta and Padmaratha represent the type of devotees who do not flinch from their vows even in the face of death. Freedom from samka enabled even a criminal like Lalita to attain success in the difficult mystic rites, which the pious Dharasena had commenced but failed to accomplish owing to his fear and indecision. 3 1 damsanananacaritani sevidavvani sahuna niccam | tani guna jana tisnivi appanam caiva nicchayado || 2 kevalananasahavo kevaladamsanasahavasuhamaio | kevalasattisahavo soham idi cimtae nani || 3 See Chap. XVI for the stories.

S'amka is, properly speaking, the fear of a man that he is alone and has no protector in the three worlds; it is the fear born of the ills of world and death. Samka is also lack of decision, that is, inability to choose between one doctrine and another, one vow and another, and one divinity and another." Akamksa is the desire for worldly happiness, which hampers constancy of faith and the practice of vows. To preserve the purity of one's faith one must renounce the desires and aspirations born of this and the other world, and those encouraged by other faiths based on erroneous doctrines.³ One must not, for instance, aspire to become a god or a Yaksa or a king as a result of one's devotion to Right Faith. To exchange Samyaktva or Right Faith for the joys of the world is like exchanging a ruby for butter-milk, and nothing but self-deception." Equanimity of mind (anakula cittavrttih) in matters of religion is the sure basis of all prosperity and bliss. To develop right faith one must, therefore, be free from attachment to the world; and the chaste maiden Anantamati is praised for rejecting her chance of worldly happiness for the sake of her vow. Vininda or Vicikitsa is doubt or hesitation in the exercise of piety as inculcated by one's faith. One must, for instance, have no hesitation in succouring the poor and the sick, however loathsome the object of one's pity may be, because one is required to do so by one's religion. King Auddayana was praised by Indra, because he personally tended helpless, old and diseased ascetics without scruple or hesitation. It is one's own fault if one is unable to follow the course of conduct prescribed by one's religion or grasp its meaning. It is the fault of the eye if the clear and luminous sky appears to be dark." He who neglects the teachings of one's religion at the sight of physical defects is like a man who rejects gold at the sight of rust on iron. The good who view the teachings of the scriptures and the nature of the body in their proper perspective feel no scruples of any kind in carrying out tenets of their faith." 8 1 ahameko na me kascidasti trata jagattraye | iti vyadhivrajotkantibhitim sankam pracaksate || P. 283. 2 etattattvamidam tattvametadvratamidam vratam | esa devasca devo'yamiti sankam viduh param || 3 tat kudrstayantarodbhutamihamutra ca sambhavam | samyagdarsanasuddhyarthamakanksam trividham tyajet || P. 291. 4 syam devah syamaham yaksah syam va vasumatipatih | yadi samyaktvamahatmya mastiticcham parityajet || 5 udasviteva manikyam samyaktvam bhavajaih sukhaih | vikrinanah puman svasya vancakah kevalam bhavet || 6 balavrddhagadaglanan muninauddayanah svayam | bhajan nirvicikitsatma stutim prapat puramdarat || P. 296. 7 svasyaiva hi sa doso'yam yanna saktah srutasrayam | silamasrayitum jantustadartham va nibodhitum || P. 294. 8 darsanaddehadosasya yastattvaya jugupsate | sa lohe kalikalokannunam muncati kancanam || 9 tadaitihye ca dehe ca yathatmyam pasyatam satam | udvegaya katham nama cittavrttih pravartatam ||

Anyaslagha or Mudhata is attachment to the dogmas of other faiths, which a devout Jaina must avoid. The Vedic, Buddhist, and Saiva scriptures are dismissed by the author as favouring the use of honey, meat and wine, as also the Vedic religion which prescribes sacrifices as a means to salvation. Such practices as purification with earth etc., ceremonial bathing, sprinkling of water, ablutions, and the worship of the Manes and the Fire; the use of deceitful speech, holy ashes, cowdung plasters and Kusa seats; the wearing of matted hair, ceremonial cloth and girdle; the carrying of clubs and bamboo baskets, and mystic poses of the fingers: all these are described as the stock-in-trade of those who are ignorant of the inner truth." The erroneous dogmas of other systems are attractive in outward appearance but dangerous in their inner significance; they are like the kimpaka fruit, and should never be relied upon. A follower of the Jaina faith should neither praise nor become acquainted with such doctrines nor be misled by the knowledge and science of other schools of thought. The devout lady Revati is accordingly praised for the utter indifference to divinities not recognised by the Jaina scriptures. 3 Somadeva then describes the four attributes which contribute to the growth of Samyaktva. They are upaguha, sthitikara, prabhavana and vatsalya. Upaguha or Dharmopabrmhana is guarding the reputation of one's religion by suppressing or concealing such faults of one's coreligionists as may lower it in the estimation of others. It is, of course, one's duty to enhance the prestige of one's faith by the cultivation of such virtues as forbearance, truthfulness, purity, mercy and honesty, and by the practice of austerities, self-control and charity. At the same time, if any of one's co-religionists commits an offence by chance or error, 'one should conceal it with the wealth of one's own virtues' as does a mother that of her children. This seems to mean that one should establish the innocence of the culprit, even if the attempt should entail personal loss or damage. When, for instace, the bogus Jaina ascetic was arrested by the police for stealing the merchant's Jewel, the latter, being a good Jaina, declared that he had himself given it to the thief, because the conviction of a Jaina ascetic for theft would have lowered the prestige of Jainism among the populace 5 1 bhabhibhasmajatavotayogapattakatasanam | mekhalaproksanam mudra vrsidandah karandakah || saucam majjanamacamah pitrpujanala cainam | antastattva vihinanam prakriyeyam virajate | P. 296. 2 antardurantasamcaram bahirakarasundaram | na sraddadhyat kudrstinam matam kimpakasamnibham || 3 tatsamstavam prasamsam va na kurvita kudrstisu | jnanavijnanayostesam vipascinna ca vibhramet || 4 ksantya satyena saucena mardavenarjavena ca | tapobhih samyamairdanaih kuryat samaya brmhanam || P. 302. 5 savitriva tanujanamaparadham sadharmasu | daivapramadasampannam niguhedgunasampada ||

who were not acquainted with the real facts.¹ Somadeva goes on to say that a religion cannot be sullied by the misdemeanour of a weakling among its adherents, just as the ocean does not become foul on account of a frog dying in its waters. This is, of course, true of all religions, but the Jainas seem to be prepared, under certain circumstances, to ignore occasional infractions of the moral code if they can thereby save their religion from any possible opprobium or disgrace. Sthitikara is the strengthening of the conviction of those among one's co-religionists who may be faltering in their loyalty to the faith, and show signs of breaking away from the fold. A person initiated into the Jaina religion may be wavering in his allegiance owing to the rigour of the vows and insufficient knowledge of the scriptures, and it is the duty of the faithful to hearten him and strengthen his loyalty to the faith. A novice must not be discarded on account of a single lapse, and the aim of a good Jaina should be ganavardhana, 'the advancement of the community', to be accomplished by constant efforts to win back waverers and sceptics and restore their allegiance.* The ends of religion can be served only by the efforts of various types of men, and each one should be assigned the role for which he is fit. Any negligence of this principle deprives men of access to the truth, prolongs the cycle of births, and contributes to the decay of the faith. The story of Varisena illustrates this aspect of one's obligations to one's religion. Prabhavana is propagation of the faith by the installation of images and the establishment of temples and the institution of worship and festivals as well as by the diffusion of knowledge and the practice of manifold austerities." We are also told that it is one's duty to enhance the prestige of the faith, without any motives of worldly gain, by means of charity and diverse forms of knowledge and science and the celebration of grand festivals and ceremonies." The story of Vajrakumara shows that a good Jaina must be prepared to defend his religion against the encroachments of rival sects. Vatsalya is helping one's co-religionists in distress, as illustrated in the story of the sage Visnu. Connected with vatsalya are certain kindred virtues 1 See Chap. XVI. 2 asaktasyaparadhena kim dharmom malino bhavet | na hi bheke mrte yati payodhih putigandhatam || 3 paripahavratodvignamajatagamasamgamam | sthapayed bhrasyadatmanam samayi samayasthitam || P. 304, 4 navaih samdigdhanirvahaividadhyadgunavardhanam | ekadosakrte tyajyah praptatattvah katham narah || 5 yatah samayakaryarthi nanapancajanasrayah | atah sambodhya yo yatra yogyastam tatra yojayet || 6 upeksayam tu jayeta tattvaddurataro narah | tatastasya bhavo dirghah samayo'pi ca hiyate || 7 caityaiscaityalayairjnanaistapobhirvividhatmakaih | pujamahadhvajadyaisca kuryanmargaprabhavanam || P. 309. 8 taddanajnanavijnanamahamahamahotsavaih | darsana dyotanam kuryadaihikapeksayojjhitah ||

which a Jaina layman ought to cultivate. They are vinaya, vaiyavrtya, and bhakti. Vinaya is respect for one's teacher, fellow-student, and the community, and for the study of the scriptures and ideal of self-control. Vaiyavrtya is efficient service rendered to the miserable and the sick.2 Bhakti is pure and sincere devotion to Jina, the Jaina scriptures, and Jaina religious teachers distinguished for their austerities and learning. X) Somadeva next deals with the salient features of Jaina religious and moral discipline in detail. In Book VII he defines Vrata as the mainstay of Samyaktva, and it is of two kinds according as it is based on the Mulagunas and Uttaragunas. The Mulagunas are eight, consisting as they do of abstention from wine, meat, honey and five kinds of fruits such as Udumbara, Asvattha, Plaksa and Nyagrodha, which are the breeding ground of various living organisms, visible and invisible. A number of stories is told to illustrate some of the mulagunas, and it is asserted that flesh-eaters have no kindness, drunkards never speak the truth, and people who take honey and the Udumbara fruit feel no pity." Drinking is condemned by saying that it is the root of all evils, since it completely deludes the mind, and is therefore the greatest of all sins. Owing to the loss of the power of discrimination men commit all kinds of sins, which lead to their wandering in the wilderness of worldly existence. It is well-known that wine was the cause of the ruin of the Yadavas, just as gambling was the cause of that of the Pandavas'. Somadeva records also a curious belief that some persons, after a long succession of births and rebirths, are in the course of time transformed into wine to delude the minds of men. The number of sentient beings transformed into a single drop of wine is large enough to fill the universe!" With regard to the prohibition of meat-eating, Somadeva wonders how people who seek their own welfare hope to increase their own flesh 1 svadhyaye samyame samghe gurau sabrahmacarini | yathaucityam krtatmano vinayam prahuradaram || P. 316. 2 adhivyadhiniruddhasya niravadyena karmana | saucityakaranam proktam vaiyavrtyam vimuktaye || 3 jine jinagame surau tapahsrutaparayane | sadbhavasuddhisampanno'nurago bhaktirucyate || P. 327. x x x xxx asvattho • 4 madyamamsamadhutyagah sahodumbarapancakah | astavete grhasthanamukta mulagunah srute || dumbaraplaksanyagrodhadiphalesvapi | pratyaksah praninah sthulah suksmascagamagocarah || P. 330. 5 mamsadisu daya nasti na satyam madyapayisu | anrsamsyam na martyesu madhudumbara se visu || 6 sarvadosodayo madyanmahamohakrtermateh | sarvesam patakanam ca purahsarataya sthitam || hitahitavimohena dehinah kim na patakam | kuryuh samsarakantaraparibhramanakaranam || P. 327. 1 7 bhadyena yadava nasta nasta dyutena pandavah | iti sarvatra loke'smin suprasiddham kathanakam || 8 samutpadya vipadyeha dehino'nekasah kila | madyibhavanti kalena manomohaya dehinam || madyaikabindusampannah praninah pracaranti cet | purayeyurna samdeham samastamapi vistapam ||

10. JAINA DOGMATICS AND MORAL AND SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINE < 3 263 with the flesh of others. Just as one's own life is dear to one, similarly the life of another is dear to him; and one should therefore refrain from destroying animal life. The objection to honey is based on the ground that it is pressed out of the young eggs in the womb of bees', and resembles the embryo in the first stage of its growth. It is forbidden to eat or drink in the house of those who take wine, meat and honey, and even to use any utensils belonging to them.* Further, one who observes the mulagunas should always avoid water brought in waterskins, oil kept in leather flasks, and women who are not in a fit state for vows.5 In connection with the taboo on meat, we are told that some object even to the eating of beans and pulses, as these, too, according to them, are flesh, being endowed with life like the bodies of camels, sheep and other animals. Somadeva, however, rejects this view, and cites a verse to the effect that flesh may constitute the body of an animate object, but the body of any animate object is not necessarily composed of flesh; just as the Neem is a tree, but any tree is not Neem." The Uttaragunas are twelve in number, and comprise the five Anuvratas, the three Gunavratas and the four Siksavratas. The Anuvratas are treated in detail and fully illustrated with elaborate stories in VII.26-32. They consist of limited vows to renounce severally injury, stealing, falsehood, lust and greed." 1 tat svasya hitamicchanto muncantascahitam muhuh | anyamamsaih svamamsasya katham vrddhividhayinah || 2 svakiyam jivitam yadvat sarvasya praninah priyam | tadvadetatparasyapi tato himsam parityajet || P. 330. 3 maksikagarbhasambhutabalandavinipidanat | jatam madhu katham santah sevante kalalakrti || 4 madyadisvadigehesu panamannam ca nacaret | tadamatradisamparka na kurvita kadacana || 5 drtiprayesu paniyam sneham ca kutapadisu | vratastho varjayennityam yositascavratocitah || 6 tadaha - mamsam jivasariram bhavenna va mamsam | yadvannimbo vrkso vrksastu bhavenna va nimbah || P. 331. 7 himsasteyanrtabrahmaparigrahavinigrahah | etani desatah pancanutratani pracaksate || P. 333. The Anuvratas or lesser vows are intended for laymen and distinguished from the same vows in their more rigorous form, known as Mahavratas or great vows, which are prescribed for monks and ascetics. The vices against which these vows are directed cover a wide field, being classified into different categories. Theft, for example, includes misappropriation of deposits, as shown by the story of Sribhuti and Bhadramitra (see Chap. XVI). It is noteworthy that the early Christians, too, included this among the more serious violations of the moral law. Pliny who was sent as legate to Bithynia in 111 A. D. reports in his ninety-sixth letter to the Emperor Trajan that the Christians 'bound themselves with an oath, not for any crime but not to commit theft or robbery or adultery, not to break their word, and not to deny a deposit when demanded'. Kidd: A History of the Church, Vol. I, p. 325; Bindley: The Apology of Tertullian, Appendix, p. 148 ff.

Dealing with the question of injury, Somadeva enunciates a positive view of ahimsa and defines himsa as destruction of living creatures through error of judgement, and ahimsa as the protection afforded to them.' It follows, therefore, that animals must not be killed for the purpose of worshipping the gods or the Manes, or entertaining one's guests, or in any mystic rites, or for medicinal purposes or out of fear this constitutes the the vow of ahimsa." All liquids should be strained through a cloth before use to avoid any possible injury to living creatures, and one should for the same reason give up also eating at night.3 Rice-gruel (or pickles), syrups, unhusked paddy, flowers, fruits, roots and leaves, being the breeding ground of living organisms, should not be acquired for use nor anything that is frequented by the latter. Hollow stalks and reeds should be avoided as well as creepers and bulbs resorted to by diverse creatures." Herbs or vegetables should be taken when no longer raw, after splitting them into two sections, and all kinds of pulses and beans which are cooked entire should also be avoided." Somadeva then enumerates certain qualities which should be cultivated to realise the ideal of ahimsa. They are maitri, pramoda, karunya and madhyasthya. Maitri is the disposition not to cause suffering to any one Pramoda is affection coupled by any physical act or thoughts or words." with respect for men eminent for their virtues and religious austerities. Karunya is the will to help the poor, while Madhyasthya is an equitable attitude, free from pleasure and displeasure, towards those who are devoid of any merit. The supreme quality of kindness is emphasized by declaring that virtue is light and sin darkness, and sin cannot abide in a person Ahimsa is thus a positive virtue, crowned with the rays of kindness." and resolves into jivadaya or compassion for living creatures, which by itself is as efficacious as all good words combined. The effect of the latter is like the result of agricultural labour, while that of the former is like the miraculous results produced by the Cintamani gem." 10 1 yat syat pramadayogena pranisu pranahapanam | sa himsa raksanam tesamahimsa tu sata mata | P. 33 1 2 devatatithipitrartham matrausadhabhayaya va | na himsyat praninam sarvanahimsa nama tadvatam || 3 devadravyani sarvani pataputani yojayet | * * * * * * * * nisayam varjayedbhuktimihamutra ca duhkhadam || 4 samdhanam panakam dhanyam puspam mulam phalam dalam | jivayoni na samgrahyam yacca jivairupadrutam || 5 yadantah susiraprayam heyam nalinaladi tat | anantakayikaprayam vallikandadikam tyajet || 6 dvidalam dvidalam prasyam prayenanavatam gatam | siddhayah sakalastyajyah sadhitah sakalasca yah || 7 kayena manasa vaca pare sarvatra dehini | aduhkhajanani vrttimaitri maitrividam mata || P. 335. 8 tapogunadhike pumsi prasrayasrayanirbharah | jayamano manoragah pramodo vidusam matah || 9 dinabhyuddharane buddhih karunyam karunatmanam | harsamarsojjhita vrttirmadhyasthyam nirgunatmani || 10 punyam tejomayam prahuh prahuh papam tamomayam | tat papam pumsi kim tistheddayadidhitimalini || 11 eka jivadayaikatra paratra sakalah kriyah | param phalam tu purvatra krsescintamaneriva || P. 337.

Speaking of theft, Somadeva difines it as taking possession of another's property, not being given by the owner, with the exception of such things which may be used by all. It is permissible to take possession of ungiven property only at the death of one's kinsmen; in case of the living, specific Those who take the vow of permission for the purpose is necessary." non-stealing must not take anything that is the property of others 'whether in a house or in the street or on water or in the woods or on the hills'. With regard to objects of unknown ownership, the king alone has the right to acquire them so that the produce of mines, large and small, belongs to none but the king. Falsification of measures, abetment of theft, receiving of stolen property, and the accumulation of wealth in war time are obstacles to the vow of non-stealing." Somadeva mentions various degrees of truth and falsehood. Firstly, that which is to some extent true, though on the whole false, as when we say in common parlance, 'he cooks food or weaves cloths'. Secondly, what is to some extent false, though on the whole true, as when a man, after promising to give something at the end of a fortnight, gives it after a month or a year. Thirdly, that which is in all respects true. Fourthly, that which is completely false, as when a man promises to give something which he does not possess." The fourth item should always be avoided, but the transactions of everyday life are founded on the other three, and sometimes even a false statement ceases to be false if it pleases one's preceptor and others. Divulging of secrets, slander, backbiting, forgery and perjury are obstacles to truth. One should not also talk about the wives of others nor speak against the king nor indulge in anti-social talks: one should take care 1 adattasya parasvasya grahanam steyamucyate | sarvabhogyattadanyatra bhavattoyatrnaditah | P. 344. 2 jnatinamatyaye vittamadattamapi samgatam | jivatam tu nidesena vrataksatirato'nyatha | 3 mandire padire nire kantare dharanidhare | tannanyadiyamadeyam svapateyam vratasrayaih || 4 riktham nidhinidhamottham na raso'nyasya yujyate | yat svasyasvamikasyeha dayado medinipatih || Ms. A remarks yo vyayikrtah ksayam na yati sa nidhih | yad vyayikrtam sat ksayam yati tannidhanamalpamityarthah || 5 pautavanyunatadhikye stenakarma tato grahah | vigrahe samgraho'rthasyasteyasyaite nivartakah || The last item appears as fin Tattvarthadhigamasutra VII. 27, which means 'Contraband trade with a hostile or prohibited country'. Siddhasena says in his commentary rajyanivasina itarasya rajyam pravisantitara rajyanivasino va'nyatararajyamabhigacchantiti viruddharajyatikramah Puujyapada hints at profiteering from this source - viruddharajye'tikramah | tatra hi alpamulyalabhyani maharghyani dravyaniti prayatnah | 6 Properly speaking, one cooks rice etc. and weaves yarn. 7 asatyam satyagam kimcit satyamasatyagam | satyasatyam punah kimcidasatyasatyameva ca | asyeda maidam paryamasatyamapi kimcit satyameva yathandhamsi randhayati vayati vasamsiti etc. P. 349. 8 turiyam varjayennityam lokayatra traye sthita | sa mithyapi na girbhithya ya gurvadiprasadini || 9 matrabhedah parivadah paisunyam kutalekhanam | mudhasaksipadoktisca satyasyaite vighatakah || 34 ·

266 ROBI YASASTILAKA AND INDIAN CULTURE not to make any unfounded statement." Exaggeration, fault-finding and indecent speech must be avoided, and one should always speak words that are 'noble, beneficial and concise'. One should not praise oneself nor calumniate others: one should not be jealous of the merits of others when they really exist and describe those of oneself which do not exist at all.³ Somadeva appears in certain cirumstances to attach greater importance to self-preservation and philanthropic considerations than to speaking out the truth. He opines that the truth must not be spoken if it is likely to endanger others and bring inevitable ruin to oneself. This can only mean that the truth need not always by revealed, if by so doing one can stave off one's own ruin and that of others. Somadeva, however, points out that the effective power of truthful speech is based on the inherent validity of truth itself, and what a truthful man says is on all occasions valid.³ 419 6 It is evident that Somadeva lays as much emphasis on doing good to others as on speaking the truth, if not more. Doing good to others seems to him to be the most natural thing to do, and he fails to understand why people are bent on making others unhappy, since to make others happy is to make oneself happy. To harbour evil thoughts To harbour evil thoughts against others is to injure oneself, and Somadeva expresses the idea by saying that 'even while the mind spreads darkness over others, it injects streams of darkness into its veins'." One should accordingly be always merciful and always devoted to the good of others, be of pleasant nature and pleasant manners, do what is pleasant and speak what is pleasant. It is also a sin to withhold spiritual knowledge from any one who asks for it. Somadeva then discusses the question of brahman or chastity, and defines it as regarding all women except one's wife or concubine as one's 1 parastriraja vidvistalokavidvistasamsrayam | anayakasamarambham na katham kathayedudhah || 2 atyuktimanyadosoktimasabhyoktim ca varjayet | bhaseta vacanam nityamabhijatam hitam mitam || 3 na stuyadatmanatmanam na param parivadayet | na sato'nyagunan himsyannasatah svasya varnayet || P. 350. 4 tat satyamapi no vacyam yat syat paravipattaye | jayante yena va svasya vyapadasca duraspadah || P. 349. cf. Hemacandra: na satyamapi bhaseta parapidakaram vacah | loke'pi sruyate yasmat kausiko narakam gatah || Yogasastra 2. 61. The sage Kausika was famous for speaking the truth, but went to hell because accurate information given by him led to the capture and killing of a band of robbers, who had concealed themselves in a wood close to his hermitage. 5 satyavaka satyasamarthyadvacah siddhim samasrute | vani casya bhavenmanya yatra yatropajayate | P. 350. 6 yat parasya priyam kuryadatmanastat priyam hi tat | atah kimiti loko'yam parapriyaparayanah || 7 yatha yatha paresvetaccato vitanute tamah | tatha tathatmanadisu tamodhara nisincati || 8 priyasilah priyacarah priyakari priyamvadah | syadanrsamsadhinityam nityam parahite ratah || P. 349. 9 moksamarga svayam janannarthine yo na bhasate | madapahnavamatsaryaih sa syadavaranadvayi ||

10. JAINA DOGMATICS AND MORAL AND SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINE . 267 mother, sister or daughter (according to their age). It is also defined as something, the maintenance of which leads to the growth of qualities like ahimsa or non-injury. In the Realm of Dharma³ men are by nature temperate in their sexual desires, and one should therefore remain content with one's married wife, and leave alone the wives of others, female relations, and nuns. Study, meditation and the practice of virtue are out of the question so long as the fire of sexual desire burns in the mind." Worldly pleasures should be enjoyed in moderation, like food, to satisfy only physical needs so as to avoid excessive longing for them. The vow of chastity is spoilt by illicit relation with women, unnatural methods of sexual enjoyment, arrangement of other people's marriages and preoccupation with the art of love." Wine, meat, gambling, music with song and dance, personal decoration, intoxication, libertines and aimless wandering: these ten are concomitants of sexual passion.³ One should be careful not to excite oneself by erotic acts, aphrodisiac potions and erotic literature. It should be remembered that men are never satiated with worldly pleasures, just as fire is never satiated with sacrificial oblations or the ocean with the influx of waters.10 los a Parigraha, the subject of the fifth Anuvrata, is attachment to worldly objects, and it should always be curtailed. The attachment may be to both outer and inner objects, the former being ten and the latter fourteen. The outer objects are arable land, corn, money, habitation, clothing and the like, couch and seat, servants, cattle and household articles. The inner objects are false doctrines; the three kinds of inclinations (feminine inclinations, mesculine inclinations and inclinations common to both the sexes): the six kinds of feelings, viz., the sense of the laughable, pleasure, displeasure, sorrow, fear and disgust; and the four passions: anger, pride, 1 vadhu vittastriyau muktva sarvatranyatra tajjane | mata svasa tanujeti matirbrahma grhasrame || P. 359, 2 raksyamane hi brmhanti yatrahimsadayo gunah | udaharanti tadbrahma brahmavidyavisaradah || 3 Explained in Ms. A as arque. 4 dharmabhumau svabhavena manusyo niyatasmarah | yajjatyaiva paraja tirbandhulinistriyastyajet || Ms. A remarks svajatya parinitaya saha sambhogah karyah | para casau ajatih parajatih parakiyajatih stri | 5 svadhyayadhyanadharmadyah kriyastavannare kutah | indhe cittendhane yavadesa kamasusuksanih || P. 360. 6 aidamparyamato muktva bhoganaharavadbhajet | dehadahopasantyarthamabhidhyanavihanaye || 7 parastrisamgamanangakridanyopayamakriyah | tivrata ratikaitavye hanyuretani tadvratam || 8 madyam dyutamupadravyam tauryatrikamalamkriyah | mado vita vrthadudyeti dasadhanangajo ganah || Ms. A 9 xplains alamkriya as yantralingalepadiprayogah- 9 madanoddipanairvrttairmadanoddipanai rasaih | madanoddipanaih sastrairmadamatmani nacaret || 10 havyairiva hutapritih pathobhiriva niradhih | tosameti pumanesa na bhogairbhavasambhavaih ||

deceit and greed." The transient character of the body and the objects of the world, property, wife and children, ought to convince us of the vanity of our desires. Wretched and miserable is the man who uses his wealth for selfish enjoyment and not for the cultivation of virtue, and supremely wealthy are those who do not desire to acquire what they have not got nor rejoice when they have acquired it. Nothing but sin results from the concentration of the mind on wealth, and acquisition through greed of more than one's legitimate share of wealth or property destroys the vow to renounce parigraha. The man, who is free from desire for both the outer and inner objects of attachment, is fit to obtain the bliss of heaven and salvation.4 XI) The three Gunavratas are next described (VII. 33), but they are not illustrated with stories, like the five Anuvratas. The Gunavratas are Digvirati, Desavirati and Anarthadandavirati. The first two consist of vows to restrict one's movements to a fixed point in a particular direction or in a particular place, preparatory to restraining the mind from external objects by renouncing injury, greed, indulgence and similar propensities. These vows constitute a scheme of preliminary self-restraint designed to secure moral purity and establish mental equilibrium with regard to the objects of the world. 5 The third Gunavrata is abstention from the Anarthadandas, which comprise all accessories of violence and all agencies and means of injury leading to slaughter, capture or confinemet, and are so called because they contribute to the prevalence of strife and discord. The Anartha-dandas include birds and animals like cocks, hawks, peacocks, cats, vicious elephants and ichneumons, and such means of injury as poison, spears, arms, fire whips, nooses and tethers. The person who takes a vow to observe this particular Gunavrata should not therefore keep noxious animals nor use any implement designed to cause injury or loss of life. The Anarthadandas cover a wide field and include also sinful gossip, evil thoughts, sports involving loss of life, futile occupations, doing harm to others, jealousy, and all acts that 1 ksetram dhanyam dhanam vastu kupyam sayanamasanam | dvipadah pasavo bhandam bahya dasa parigrahah || samithyatvastrayo veda hasyaprabhrtayo'pi sat | catvarasca kasayah syurantargranthascaturdasa || P. 366. 2 sa srimanapi nihsrikah sa narasca naradhamah | yo na dharmaya bhogaya vinayeta dhanagamam || prapte'rthe ye na madyanti naprapte sprhayalavah | lokadvayasritam srinam ta eva paramesvarah || P. 367. 13 krtapramanallomena dhanadadhikasamgrahah | pancamanuvratajyanim karoti grhamedhinam || 4 yasya dvandvadvaye'pyasmin nihsprham dehino manah | svargapavarga laksminam ksanat pakse sa daksate || 5 diksu sarvasvadhah prordhvadesesu nikhilesu ca | etasyam disi dese'sminniyatyevam gatirmama || digdesa niyamadevam tato bahyesu vastusu | himsa lobhopabhogadinivrttescittayantrana || P. 370.

cause grief and mourning to one's fellow creatures." It will be seen that the third Gunavrata is designed to supplement the great vow of Ahimsa, and Somadeva goes on to say that, by renouncing the Anarthadandas, the devotee earns the friendship of all creatures and becomes their lord. Deception and violence practised at the instance of others, the overloading of beasts of burden, and causing excessive suffering to them amount to violation of this vow.3 XII) The four Siksavratas are treated in detail in Book VIII, which practically brings to an end Somadeva's masterly discourse on the Jaina religion. They are samayika or customary worship, prosadhopasana or religious fasting, niyama or limitation of worldly enjoyment, and dana or charity. We have in our work a comprehensive treatment of samayika or the Jaina system of worship, which primarily resolves itself into the worship of Arhats, that is, the all-holy and omniscient Tirthamkaras or Patriarchs. The worship is of two kinds according as it is done with or without the use of idols. a) The kind of worship in which idols are dispensed with is regulated by what is known as samaya-samacara-vidhi, which prescribes the adoration of certain entities, concrete and abstract, held sacred by Jainism. They are the Five Paramesthins or Exalted Beings and the Three Jewels (Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct). All these should be visualized on a piece of birch bark or cloth or wooden board or a slab of stone or on sand or the earth or in the air or in one's heart.4 The salutations and hymns accompanying the votive offerings are composed by Somadeva himself in ornate prose and verse, and they rank high in Jaina devotional literature. The Five Paramesthins are adored first. They are, according to Somadeva's interpretation, the Arhat, that is, one of the Tirthamkaras or Patriarchs endowed with superhuman qualities; the Siddha or one who has realised within himself the luminous presence of the Infinite Soul; the Acarya or the teacher who regulates the social order according the principles of Jainism; the Upadhyaya or the learned preceptor who has mastered 1 sikhandikukkutasyena bida (lavyalababhravah | visakantakasastra nikasapasakarajjavah || papakhyanasubhadhyanahimsakrida vrtha- kriyah | paropatapapaisunyasokakrandanakarita || vadhabandhana samrodhahetavo'nye'pi cedrsah | bhavantyanarthadandakhyah samparaya pravardhanat || posanam krurasattvanam himsopakaranaki yam | desavrati na kurvita svakiyacaracarudhih || 2 anarthadandanirmoksadavasyam desato yatih | suhrttam sarvabhutesu svamitvam ca prapadyate || 3 vancanarambhahimsanamupadesat pravartanam | bharadhikyadhikaklesau trtiyagunahanaye || 4 bhurje phalake sicaye silatale saikate ksitau vyomni | hrdaye caite sthapyah samayasamacaravedibhirnityam || P. 373.

AL .01 the sacred lore; and the Sadhu or the devotee bent on salvation and engaged may be added in rigorous austerities in the face of insuperable obstacles. It that the doctrine of the Paramesthins is a cardinal feature of Jainism, which offers to some extent to be a cult of the superman in the sphere of religion, and reserves its highest honours for the best of men who uphold religion and society according to the tenets of the Jaina faith. The Paramesthins as well as the Three Jelwes are invoked in our work in elaborate, long-winding prose salutations, each followed by a supplementary verse, some of which will be found reproduced in Chapter IV. Somadeva refers in this connection to the eightfold worship of the Paramesthins and the Three Jewels." 10 The prose invocations are followed by a considerable number of verses in praise of Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct, the Arhat, the Siddha, the Acarya, and Santinatha, one of the the Jinas or Tirthamkaras. Most of these eulogies are couched in an elevated style and will be found in the chapter on Somadeva's verse. b) The worshipper may also use an image of the Arhat, and such worship consists of six items, viz. bathing and adoration of the idol, hymns, silent prayer (japa), meditation, and the adoration of the presiding goddess of the scriptures (Srutadevata). The first two items, ceremonial bathing and adoration of the idol, are closely interconnected, and illustrated by Somadeva with a series of highflown verses in praise of Jina, designed to accompany each successive stage of the ritual. The various stages of the worship proper are prastavana (prelude), purakarma (preliminary arrangements), sthapana (placing the idol on the altar), samnidhapana (formal installation of the idol), puja (obeisance and offerings), and pujaphala (declaration of the results accruing from the worship of Jina). The idol is bathed with fragrant water, clarified butter, and the juice of vines, dates, sugarcanes, old myrobalans, areca-nuts, and Piyala fruits as well as coconut-milk, and anointed with various pastes and compounds made from sandal, aloe wood, cardamoms, cloves and Kamkola berries. Four pitchers filled with water and decorated with flowers and leaves are kept ready for the bathing ceremony. The sacred Nandyavarta and Svastika emblems, 1 For example, f. The eightfold worship is defined as fiollows in Hemacandra's Yogasastra 3. 120 : yadaha | gandhairmalyairvinirya ihalaparimalairaksatai- dhupadipaih samnayyaih prajyabhedaiscarubhirupahrtaih pakaputaih phalaisca | ambhahsampurnapatrairiti hi jinapaterarcanamastabhedam kurvana vesmabhajah paramapadasukhastomamarallabhante || 2 draksakharjuracoceksupracinamalakodbhavaih | rajadanamrapugotthaih snapayami jinam rasaih || P. 383. 3 elalavangakankolamalayagarumisritaih | pistaih kalkaih kasayaisca jinadehamupasmahe || 4 pathah purnan kumbhan konesu supallavaprasunarcan | dugdhabdhiniva vidadhe pravalamuktolbanamscaturah ||

fruits, flowers, unbroken rice, water, handfuls of Kusa grass, and earthen vessels are revolved in a circular fashion before the idol: this being the ceremony known as nirajana." After a final bath (avabhrthasnana), 2 the worshipper should present to the idol Kalama rice, havis, lights, incense, flowers and fruits. White parasols, fly-whisks and mirrors are among the articles used in the worship of the idol. The following are some of the verses composed by Somadeva to mark the different stages in the worship of Jina. pathah purnan kumbhan konesu supallavaprasunarcan | dugdhandhiniva vidadhe pravalamuktolbanamscaturah || ( purakarma ) p. 383. tirthodakairmani suvarnaghatopanitaih pithe pavitravapusi pratikalpitarthe | "laksmisrutagamana bija vidarbhagarbhe samsthapayami bhuvanadhipati jinendram || (sthapana ) so'yam jinah suragirirnanu pitametadetani dugdhajaladheh salilani saksat | indrastvaham tava savapratikarmayogat purna tatah kathamiyam na mahotsavasrih || ( samnidhapanam ) The following verses among others are meant to be recited while worshipping the idol with diverse offerings: yoge'smin nakanatha jvalana pitrpate naigameya praceto vayo raidesasesodupasaparijana yuyametya grahaprah | mantrairbhuhsvahsvadhadyairadhigatavalayah svasu diksupavistah ksepiyah ksemadaksah kuruta jinasavotsahinam vighnasantim || P. 383 amrtakrtakarnike'smin nijankabije kaladale kamale | samsthapya pujayeyam tribhuvanavaradam jinam vidhina | verse: The glory of the bathing ceremony is proclaimed in another laksmikalpalate samullasa jananandaih param pallavairdharmamramaphalaih prakamasubhagastvam bhavyasevyo bhava | bodhadhisa vimunca samprati muhurduskarmadharmakkumam trailokyapramadava hai jinapatergandhodakaih khapanat || P. 385 'Owing to the bathing of Lord Jina with perfumed waters that delight the universe, thou Wishing Creeper of Prosperity, blossom forth with leaves, bringing joy to men; thou Garden of Religious Merit, ever beautiful with fruits, be thou the resort of the faithful; and, thou Soul, shake off now the langour caused by the seat of recurring sins?' The benign influence of the worship of Jina is expressed in the following benediction: dharmesu dharmaniratatmasu dharmahetordharmadavapta mahimastu nrpo'nukulah | nityam jinendracaranarcanapunyadhanyah kamam prajasca paramam sriyamasuvantu || P. 386. 1 nandyavarta svastikaphalaprasunaksatambukura pulaih | avatarayami devam jinesvaram vardhamanaisca || P. 384. 2 yajnairmudavabhrthabhagbhirupasya devam etc. As Ms. A says, yajnaih means pujabhih P. 386. 3_Refers to the mystic formula sri . Ms. A says pithasyapi purvamargho diyate | aksataih srikaro likhyate na tu gandhena . 4 Ms. A explains amrta as pavarna and says: pakarena karnika kriyate tanmadhye svakiyam nama niksipyate | sodasadalesu akaradayah svara likhyante | 5 Ms. A reads dharmahetau for dharmaheto and explains it as caityalayamunisastrasamghesu .

'Let a king, having acquired glory by dint of virtue, be for the sake of Virtue, favourable to the practice of the virtues and those who are devoted to Virtue. Let the people, too, obtain at will the highest prosperity, ever blessed with the religious merit accruing from the worship of Lord Jina's feet.' c) The ritual of worship is followed by the singing of hymns in praise of Jina. The next item is Japa or the repetition of the famous Pancaparamesthi-mantra consisting of thirtyfive letters: names " namo arahamtanam, namo siddhanam, namo ayariyanam, namo uvajjhayanam, namo loe savvasahunam | " This is the sarvaksara-mantra. Somadeva refers also to the namaksara formula consisting only of the names of the five Paramesthins, the mukhyaksara formula consisting of the initial letters of the of the Paramesthins, and formulas consisting of a single letter such as Om³ or c, but he prefers the one consisting of thirtyfive letters as the most authoritative. The counting of the letters is to be done with a rosary composed of lotus seeds or golden beads or sunstones or gems, and the counting may also be done with flowers or on the finger-joints. The formula is to be repeated in full, very clearly, with stress on the final anusvaras. The repetition of the mantra may be Great vocal or mental, the latter method being the more efficacious. mystic value is attached to this formula which is eloquently praised by our author. d) Japa is followed by dhyana or meditation. The thirtyninth section of Book VIII deals with this important subject, and belongs, in fact, to a type of Jaina mystic literature represented by such works as Kundakunda's Mokkhapahuda and Niyamasara, Samadhisataka, Yogindu's Paramatmaprakasa, Subhacandra's Jnanarnava and Devasena's Aradhanasara. There are different kinds of dhyana, but the fundamental basis of the Jaina system of meditation is the contemplation and realisation of the true nature of the Self. It is necessary to remember at the outset that Jaina doctrine recognises three kinds of Self: bahiratma or the outer 1 " arhatsiddhacaryopadhyaya sarvasadhubhyo namah | " Ms. A says arahamta siddha ityadi . 2 "a si a u sa " 3 See Section (d). 4 sarvaksara namaksara mukhyaksararadyekavarnavinyasat | nigiranti japam kecidaham tu siddhakramaireva | P. 390. See also Dravya samgraha, verse 49 and Brahmadeva's comm. thereon. qui a javaha jhaha | parametthivacayanam annam ca guruvaesena || 5 puspaih parvabhirambujabijasvarnarkakantaralairva | niskampitaksavalayah paryankastho japam kuryat || 6 'sampurnamati spastam sanadamanandasundaram japatah| '

Self, antaratma or the inner Self, and paramatma or the higher Self. Kundakunda says in his Mokkhapahuda that the external Self consists of the sense organs; the inner Self is the consciousness that the soul is distinct from the body; and the higher Self is the emancipated soul free from the impurities of Karma." The paramatma or the higher Self is the sole object of meditation, and it is essential to note that it is not the universal Soul of Vedanta, but the pure and all-knowing soul in each individual, circumscribed and obscured for the time being by the hindrances of karma. Jaina meditation is not merely contemplation but realisation of the Self, which is the same thing as liberation or the emancipated existence of the individual soul. As Kundakunda says, the Yogin by contemplating the paramatma diverts himself of sin-producing greed and acquires no new karma: firm in right conduct and right faith, he contemplates the Self and reaches the supreme goal (ibid. verses 48, 49).2 Somadeva begins by saying that the prescribed process of meditation should be sedulously practised by one who desires to contemplate the Supreme Light and attain that eternal abode', that is, the abode of the emancipated souls at the top of the universe, as conceived by Jainism. The Supreme Light (paramjyotih) is the higher Self or paramatma, and the expression is often used in this sense in Jaina literature, e. g., in Jnanarnava 31. 8,3 41; 32. 35° etc. Somadeva mentions two broad divisions of meditation, sabijadhyana and abijadhyana. In sabijadhyana the mind is like a lamp, unshaken by the gusts of external and internal delusion, and cheers up at the sight of the Truth.6 In abijadhyana the mental current reaches a stage when it becomes devoid of conscious thought, and the Self sparkles within itself." In other words, the mind is at work in sabijadhyana, but ceases to function in abijadhyana, leaving the Self to discover itself. The latter is the higher kind of contemplation, of which Somadeva describes the main characteristics. He says that when the five senses sink into themselves and the mind is submerged, the Light dawns on the inner Self. Meditation consists in mental concentration; the Self meditates and reaps the consequences; the 1 akkhani bahirappa amtaraappa hu appasamkappo | kammakalamkavimukka paramappa bhannae devo || 2 paramappaya jhayamto joi muccei maladalohena | nadiyadi navam kammam niddittam jinavarimdehim || houna didhacaritto didhasammattena bhaviyamaio | jhayamto appanam paramaparyam pavae joi || 3 'paramatma paramjyotih ' 4 paramjyotistrata paramapuruso'cintyacaritah " 5 'yo visuddhah prasiddhatma paramjyotih sanatanah " 6 bahiramtastamo vatairaspandam dipavanmanah | yattatvalokanolasi tat syad dhyanam sabijakam || P. 391. 7 nirvicaravatarasu cetahsrotah pravrttisu | atmanyeva sphurannatma bhaveddhyanamabijakam || 35

Light of the Self is the object of meditation; and the subjugation of the senses is the means to accomplish it. Lack of strength does not remove obstacles nor does lack of stamina lead to eternal life: one should therefore contemplate the higher Self (param brahma) without any sense of weakness." Two points may be noted in this connection. First, while there cannot be meditation without mental concentration, the destruction of the senses and specially the activity of the mind is the primary condition of self-realisation. Devasena's Aradhanasara, which elaborates the point, remarks, for instance, that the Self atma becomes the higher Self (paramatma) when the activity of the mind is destroyed." Yogindu in his Paramatmaprakasa (verse 31) describes the higher Self as mindless (amanu), and the devotee is asked to meditate on the infinite and divine Self by suppressing the mind.³ Super-mental consciousness is the goal aimed at, and the vision of the Light is said to appear only when the senses are subdued and the mind is at a standstill. Pujyapada says in his Samadhisataka (verse 30) that what one visualizes for a moment after controlling all the senses, with the inner Self Somadeva motionless and calm, is the reality underlying the higher Self.* says in a mystic verse, which, if we understand it correctly, seems to mean that when the swan of the mind (i. e. the inner Self) is bereft of mental activity and the swan of the soul (i. e. the higher Self) is steady in every respect, the swan of knowledge becomes the swan of the lake of visible phenomena in their entirety." There seems to be here a reference to what Yogindu calls hamsacara (2. 170), which is explained as the passionfree purity of the soul concomitant with infinite knowledge and other attributes. Secondly, the use of the expression param brahma in the sense of the higher Self is another instance of Jaina adaptation of Vedantic terminology. Somadeva uses the expression several times, and other examples are frequently found in Yogindu's Paramatmaprakasa.³ Meditation is always difficult. Just as gems, though found in the earth, are not found everywhere; similarly, meditation, though it depends upon 1 cittasyaikagrata dhyanam dhyatatma tatphalaprabhuh | dhyeyamatmagamajyotistadvidhirdehayatana | naksamitvamavighnaya na klibatvamamrtyave | tasmada klisyamanatma param brahmaiva cintayet || P. 391. 2 'niggahie manapasare appa paramappao havai | ' 3 'cittu nivarivi jhahi tuhum appa deu anamtu | 2. 172. 4 sarvendriyani samyamya stimitenantaratmana | yat ksanam pasyato bhati tattattvam paramatmanah || 5 nirmanaske manohamse pumhamse sarvatah sthire | bodhaham so'khila lokyasarohamsah prajayate | P. 392. 6 Brahmadeva says in his commentary: hamsacaru samsayavibhramavimoharahitanantajnanadinirmala gunayogena hamsa iva hamsah paramatma tasya acaram ragadirahitam suddhatmaparinamamiti | 7 See below. 8 bambhu munevinu 1. 109. Comm. says brahmasabdavacyanirdosiparamatmanam matva jnatvah ; bambhu parvacahi jo rahiu 2. 171 etc.

individual effort, is not possible for everybody. The duration of dhyana is only an antarmuhurta; and it is difficult to attain a state of mind, steadfast in meditation and free from vibration.2 But dhyana, though it lasts only for such a short time, firm in the soul, totally destroys one's accumulated karma, just as a stroke of lightning rends asunder a hill in a moment.3 There are five factors which contribute towards Yoga or meditation: indifference to the world, maturity of knowledge, lack of attachment, a steadfast mind and ability to endure the privations of hunger, thirst, grief, swoon, old age and death.* The obstacles to Yoga are mental suffering, disease, error, carelessness, idleness, confusion, lack of success, attachment and fickleness." He who practises meditation should be free from anger and pleasure, and remain indifferent, like a clod of earth, both to one who pierces him with thorns and one who smears him with sandal-paste. He should maintain a uniform attitude towards gain and loss, home and woodland, friend and foe, the pleasant and the unpleasant, happiness and misery." He should be deeply learned in sacred lore regarding the higher Self, endowed with fortitude, goodwill, and maintain constant silence except for words pleasant and true.³ 2800 Somadeva then refers to the four kinds of dhyana mentioned in Tattvarthasutra, ch. IX: arta, raudra, dharmya and sukla. Artadhyana is of four kinds: contemplation of the presence of an unpleasant object and the anxiety to get rid of it; contemplation of the loss of a pleasant object and the anxiety to regain it; constant thought of pain or disease and the desire to remove it; and the anxiety to enjoy unattained objects of pleasure. Raudradhyana is also of four kinds according as it is preoccupied with thoughts of injury, falsehood, theft and the preservation of the means of enjoyment. Artadhyana and Raudradhyana should be avoided by all means: they are, as it were, gates barring the entry of the Three Jewels and effective barriers in the path of liberation; steps leading to hell and wings obscuring the vision of the truth. The tree of rebirth prodigiously grows as long as even a vestige of these two dhyanas remains in the mind." 1 bhumau janmeti ratnanam yatha sarvatra nodbhavah | tathatmajamiti dhyanam sarvatrangini nodbhavet|| P. 392, 2 tasya kalam vadantyantarmuhurta munayah param | aparispandamanam hi tat param durdharam manah || 3 tatkalamapi taddhyanam sphuradekagramatmani | uccaih karmoccayam bhindyadvajram sailamiva ksanat || 4 vairagyam jnanasampattirasamgah sthiracittata | urmismayasahatvam ca panca yogasya hetavah || 5 adhivyadhiviparyasapramadalasyavibhramah | alabhah sangita sthairyamete tasyantarayakah || 6 yah kantakaistudatyangam yasca limpati candanaih | rosatosa visiktatma tayorasita lostavat || 7 labhe'labhe vane vase mitre'mitre priye spriye | sukhe duhkhe samanatma bhavettaddhadhanadhih sada || P. 393. 8 pare brahmanyanucano dhrtimaitridayanvitah | anyatra sunrtadvakyannityam vacamyami bhavet || 9 jantoranantasamsara bhramainorathavartmani | artaraudre tyajeddhayane durantaphaladayini || bodhyagamakapate te muktimargargale pare | sopane svalokasya tattveksavrtipaksmani || lesato'pi mano yavadete samadhitisthatah | esa janmatarustavaduccaih samadhirohati || P. 393.

Somadeva then deals with Dharmyadhyana and Sukladhyana. He who practises Dharmyadhyana should ponder over the fundamental principles of Jainism, carefully considering the authoritative means of knowledge, and the various standpoints and aspects.' Dharmyadhyana is of four kinds: ajnavicaya or discerning the truth on the basis of absolute faith in the scriptures composed by Jina; apayavicaya or pondering on the means of making people abstain from wrong belief, knowledge and conduct; vipakavicaya or pondering over the consequences of the eight kinds of karma; and samsthanavicaya or pondering over the nature and constitution of the universe. Somadeva gives examples of all the varieties of Dharmyadhyana. For instance, the devotee may reflect on ajna in the following manner: 'Just as there is no mystery in the world about pure gold and its working, similarly it is the desire of the wise that there should be no mystery about authoritative scriptures. But the scriptures (of other faiths) fail to convince even persons of scanty intelligence like myself. How can they help the creatures sinking in the ocean of worldly existence?'' Apaya may be contemplated as follows: Alas, the darkness of false doctrines makes man's minds blind to the acceptance of the Three Jewels, even though such a step shines with the rays of reason. Let us hope for the day when, casting off sins, men will see the Truth that puts an end to misery.'3 After reflecting on the constitution of the universe, the devotee should ponder over the consequences of karma: 'There in the universe, upwards, downwards, and athwart, the creatures incessantly wander, like dust, impelled by the gust of their own karma.' It is asserted that he who thus practises Dharmyadhyana, with his senses and mind subdued, has his darkness dispelled, as if at the rise of the sun. The next step is Sukladhyana which is the highest form of meditation. The four stages of this dhyana are briefly mentioned by Somadeva (P. 394.): bhedam vivarjitabhedamabhedam bhedavarjitam | dhyayan suksmakriyasuddho niskriyam yogamacaret || The first stage, called by Somadeva 'diversity devoid of unity', is prthaktvavitarka-vicara, wherein the devotee is absorbed in the meditation of the Self, but unconsciously allows its different attributes to replace one another. The second stage, called by our author 'unity devoid of diversity', is ekatva-vitarka- 1 pramananayaniksepaih sanuyogairvisuddhadhih | matim tanoti tattvesu dharmadhyanaparayanah || P. 394. 2 arahasye yatha loke sati kancanakarmani | arahasyam tathecchanti sudhiyah paramagamam | yah skhalatyalpa bodhanam vicaresvapi madrsam | sa samsararnave majjajjantvalambah katham bhavet || ( ityajna ) P. 394. 3 aho mithyatamah pumsam yuktidyotaih sphuratyapi | yadandhayati cetamsi ratnatrayaparigrahe | asasmahe tadetesam dinam yatrastakalmasah | idamete prapasyanti tattvam duhkhanibarhanam || ( ityapayah ) 4 akrtrimo vicitratma madhye ca trasarajiman | maruttrayivrto lokah prante taddhamanisthitah || ( iti lokah ) renuvajja • ntavastatra tiryagurdhvamadho'pi ca | anaratam bhramantyete nijakarmanileritah || ( iti vipakah ) 5 iti cintayato dharmyam yatatmendriyacetasah | tamamsi dravamayanti dvadasatmodayadiva |

vicara, wherein the Yogin concentrates on a particular aspect of the Self without any change or variation. These two stages of Sukladhyana are followed by the destruction of the 'destructive' karmas, and the third stage is known as suksma-kriya-pratipati, wherein the absorption of the soul in itself still leaves room for minute vibratory movements in the soul. The fourth stage is vyuparata-kriya-nivarti, called by Somadeva niskriya yoga, wherein vibration or activity of any kind is totally absent. Transcending the body, the Yogin now loses all connection with the mind, and his vital breaths come to an end, while he attains the supreme goal and perfect knowledge. This is the stage in which the Self becomes the higher Self, and this is moksa or liberation, characterized by the destruction of both 'destructive' and 'undestructive' karmas, and free from the limitations of birth, a condition in which the Self attains its own qualities. As Kundakunda says in his Samayasara (verse 196), one who is full of faith and knowledge, and meditates on the Self with undivided attention, soon attains the higher Self, free from karmas; and liberation is nothing but the attainment or realisation of the higher Self, as pointed out by Yogindu in Paramatmaprakasa 2. 10.º 5 One 3 who practises meditation should also contemplate the path of the Three Jewels, the rules of conduct, the Anupreksas, and the seven fundaBut the mental principles of Jainism, and the personality of Lord Jina." contemplation of the Self is the supreme object of dhyana, and the devotee should reflect within himself that he knows the truth and devotedly believes in the scriptures, and will renounce all external activity and merge the Self in the (higher) Self.8 As explained in Jnanarnava 40.19, the person engaged in meditation should unite the Self with the higher Self, inspired solely by the nature thereof, and impregnating the Self with the qualities of the higher Self. The realisation of the (higher) Self by the Self by means of the (inner) Self, that is, knowledge, is a mode of expression frequently used in 1 See Tattvarthadhigamasutra IX. 39 (ed. Jaini, p. 190). 2 vilinasayasambandhah santamarutasamcayah | dehatitah param dhama kaivalyam pratipadyate || The verse is omitted in the printed text of Yasastilaka, p. 394. 3 The 'destructive' ( ghatin ) Karmas are jnanavaraniya, darsanavaraniya, mohaniya and antaraya . The 'undestructive' (aghatin ) Karmas are vedaniya, nama, gotra and ayuh . See Section IV. 4. praksinobhayakarmanam janmadosairvivarjitam | labdhatmagunamatmanam moksamahurmanisinah || P. 394. 5 appanam jhayamto damsanananamaio anannamano | lahadi acirena appanameva so kammanimmukkam || 6 jivaham so para mokkhu muni jo paramappayalahu | kammakalamkavimukkaham naniya bollahi sahu || 7 margasutramanupreksah saptatattvam jinesvaram | dhyayedagamacaksusman prasamkhyanaparayanah || P. 395. 8 jane tattvam yathaitihyam sraddadhe tadananyadhih | munce'ham sarvamarambhamatmanyatmanamadadhe || 9 tadgunagramasampurna tatsvabhavaikabhavitah | krtvatmanam tato dhyani yojayet paramatmani ||

Jaina mystic literature with peculiar and almost redundant emphasis. Somadeva, for instance, says that when the Self realises the Self within itself by means of the Self as a result of the attainment of the Three Jewels, it attains itself ( that is, its own true qualities) along with the higher Self ( P.395 ) : atmayam bodhisampatteratmanyatmanamatmana | yada sute tadatmanam labhate paramatmana || The idea is expressed in similar language in several other texts, e. g., Samaryasara 196; Pujyapada's Istopadesa 22; Jnanarnava 32. 41; Paramatmaprakasa 2. 174 : appanam jhayamto damsanananamaio anannamano | lahadi acirena appanameva so kammanimmukkam || samyamya karanagramamekagratvena cetasah | atmanamatmavan dhyayedatmanaivatmani sthitam || atmanyevatmanatmayam svayamevanubhuyate | ato'nyatraiva mam jnatum prayasah karyanisphalah || ehu ju appa so paramappa kammavisesem jayau jappa | jamaim janai appa appa tamaim so ji deu paramappa || Somadeva declares that the Self meditates, the Self is the object of meditation, the Self is meditation, and the Self composed of the Three Jewels is the result of meditation (P. 395 ) : dhyatatma dhyeyamatmaiva dhyanamatma phalam tatha | atma ratnatrayatmokto yatha yuktiparigrahah || The absolute identity of the Self with the higher Self so that there remains no distinction between the subject and object of meditation and meditation itself is proclaimed also in other texts: Pujyapada's Istopadesa 25; Devasena's Aradhanasara 11; Jnanamnava 31. 37-8 : katasya kartahamiti sambandhah syad dvayordvayoh | dhyanam dhyeyam yadatmaiva sambandhah kidrsastada || arahanamaraham arahaya taha phalam ca jam bhaniyam | tam savvam janijjo appanam 'veva nicchayado ' || ananyasaranibhuya sa tasmin liyate tatha | dhyatrdhyanobhayabhave dhyeyenaikyam yatha vrajet || so'yam samarasibhavastadekikaranam smrtam | aprthaktvena yatratma liyate paramatmani || Somadeva has a number of verses which contain the reflections of the devotee engaged in meditation (P. 395 ) : sukhamrtasudhasutistadbhaverudayacalah | param brahmahamatrase tamah pasavasikrtah || yada cakasti me cetastaddhyanodayagocaram | tadaham jagatam caksuh syamaditya ivatamah || adau madhvamadhu prante sarvamindriyajam sukham | pratah snayisu hemante toyamusnamivangisu || yo duramayadudese baddhagraso yamo'ngini | svabhavasubhage tasya sprha kena nivaryate || janmayauvanasamyogasukhani yadi dehinam | nirvipaksani ko nama sudhih samsaramutsrjet || anuyaceta nayumsi napi mrtyumupaharet | bhrto bhrtya ivasita kalavadhimavismaran || mahabhogo'hamadyasmi yattatvarucitejasa | suvisuddhantaratmase tamahpare pratisthitah || tannasti yadaham loke sukham duhkham ca naptavan | svapne'pi na maya prapto jainagamasudharasah || samyagetat sudhambhodherbindumapyalihan muhuh | janturma jatu jayeta janmajvalanabhajanah || 'I am the higher Self, the moon of the nectar of bliss, and the mountain 1 esa yah atma sa paramatma karmavisesena jatah japyah | yada janati atmana atmanam tada sa eva devah paramatma || 2 aradhanamaradhyam aradhakastatha phalam ca yad bhanitam | tat sarvam janihi atmanam caiva niscayatah ||

whence rises the sun of bliss. Overpowered by the fetters of ignorance, I am confined within the body. But when my mind shines under the influence of the contemplation of the higher Self, I will be the eye of the universe, like the sun free from darkness. All pleasures of the senses are sweet at the outset, but bitter at the end, like water in the winter, which at first proves warm to bathers at dawn. Death is ready to swallow even a creature afflicted with a fell disease: who can check his greed for one that is beautiful by nature ? If life, youth, association and the joys of creatures were permanent, what wise man would desire to avoid the cycle of births? One should neither long for life nor invite death, but remain like a servant maintained with wages, not forgetting the limit of one's term. Paramount happiness is mine today, standing as I do on the farther shore of darkness, the inner Self thoroughly purified by the light of faith in the fundamental truths. No pleasure or pain is there in the world which I have not experienced, but never have I tasted the nectar of Jaina lore even in a dream. No living creature ever becomes subject to the flames of rebirth if he takes, rightly and often, even a drop of that ocean of nectar!' The devotee should also contemplate the nature and glory of Jina, 'who appears to shine in person in the lights of meditation'. Somadeva describes in a series of verses the various aspects of the Exalted One's sacred majesty, as a guide to the devotee's own contemplation of the true character of Jina. Portions of the dhyana are reproduced below (P. 397 ) : devam devasabhasinam pancakalyananayakam | catustrimsagunopetam pratiharyopasobhitam || niranjanam janadhisam paramam ramayasritam | acyutam cyutadosaughamabhavam bhavabhrgurum || prabhavam sarvavidyanam sarvalokapitamaham | sarvasatva hitarambham gatasarvamasarvagam || ' stuyamanamanucanairbrahmodyairbrahmakamibhih | adhyatmagamavedhobhiryogimukhyairmaharddhibhih || nirupam rupitasesamasabdam sabdanisthitam | asparsa yogasamsparsamarasam sarasagamam || atavakagunam ' sarvam evam sarvagunabhajanah | tvam srstih sarvakamanam kamasrstinimilanah || trayimarga trayirupam trayimuktam trayipatim | trayivyaptam trayitattvam trayicudamanisthitam || jagatam kaumudicandra kamakalpavaniruham | gunacintamaniksetram kalyanagamanakaram || pranidhanapradipesu saksadiva cakasatam | dhyayejagattrayacarhimarhantam sarvatomukham || Somadeva then explains the Jaina view of gods. He tells us that the Jaina scriptures have imagined the existence of various deities for the protection of the faith, but whoever considers them equal in matters 1 na sarva gacchati iti sarirapramanamityarthah - Ms. A. 2 yad vastu tat sarvam atavakagunam tvatsvarupam na - Ms. A. 3 According to Ms. A, trayi means successively ( 1 ) ralatraya (2) satta, sukha and caitanya ( 3 ) raga, dvesa and moha ( 4 ) the three forms of knowledge (mati sruta and avadhi ) (5) atita, anagata and vartamanakala ( 6 ) utpada, vyaya and dhrauvya ( 7 ) and the three worlds.

280 fera 3 YASASTILAKA AND INDIAN CULTURE of worship to Lord Jina, 'the eye of the three worlds', is bound to go to the lowest hell, although it is permissible to honour them as well by allotting to tham a portion of the ceremonial offerings. These deities including Indra show favour of their own accord to those who are solely devoted to the Jaina creed, possess right faith, and carefully observe the vows." The contemplation of Lord Jina mentioned above is an attempt to visualize the diverse aspects of the saviour's personality, and is generally known as rapastha dhyana. The worshipper may contemplate also the mystic formula signifying the five Paramesthins, namely the Arham mantra, 'the eternal foundation of all branches of knowledge'. While contemplating it the devotee should use the mandara-mudra and mentally locate the mantra on his forehead, We are told that sages contemplate this mantra after studying all the scriptures and performing the greatest austerities, and that any one who mentally repeats it attains all kinds of prosperity It whether he is pure or impure, happy or miserable.* be noted that may this kind of meditation is known as padastha dhyana, explained in Jnanarnava (chap. 38), which describes diverse mystic formulas including the Arham mantra.5 The above forms of meditation are called by Somadeva transcendental (lokottara), and he makes also certain observations which he calls popular or general (laukika). The devotee, for instance, should contemplate the Omkara formula, mentally locating it on the tip of the nose and concentrating the mind on space between the eyebrows. He should arouse the mystic lotus inside his navel and move the connected artery, and then direct the four 'winds' or subtle breaths relating to earth, water, fire and air towards the mind." It may be noted that the process referred to here 1 'tah sasanadhiraksartham kalpitah paramagame ' etc. 2 See Jnanarnava, chap. 39. 3 dhyayedva vanmayam jyotirgurupancakavacakam | etaddhi sarvavidyanamadhisthanamanasvaram || dhyayan vinyasya dehe'sminnidam mandaramudraya | sarva namadivarnarha varnadyantam sabijakam || P. 398. MS. A says mastakopari hastadvayena sikharakarah kusalah kriyate sa eva mandarah | 4 'adhitya sarvasastrani vidhaya ca tapah param ' etc. 5 uktam ca- akaradi hakarantam rephamadhyam sabindukam | tadeva paramam tattvam yo janati sa tattvavit || Jnanarnava (op. cit.) 6 pancamurtimayam bijam nasikagre vicintayat | nidhaya samgame ceto divyajnanamavapnuyat || It may be noted that the Jaina Om is composed of the first letters of the name of the five Paramesthins. a (arahanta ) + a (asarira i. 0. siddha ) + a (acarya ) +u (upadhyaya ) + m (muni i. e. sadhu ) = om or om See Brahmadeva's commentary on Dravyasamgraha, verse. 49. 7 padmamutthapayet purvam nadim samcalayettatah | maruccatustayam pascat pracarayatu cetasi || Ms. A says nabhau svabhavena sthitam kamalam calayet pascat nalakarena nadim, nadya krtva marutah hrdayam prati prapayet | ( maruscatustayam ) prthvi-apa- tejovayumandalani nasikamadhye suksmani sthitani tani cetasi atmavisaye pracarayatu yojayatu |

is employed in pranayama, and the devotee has to master the control and regulation of each of the four kinds of vital air, believed to be located, each in its own centre, inside the nostrils. The topic is treated in detail in Jnanarnava 29. 15 ff. Somadeva goes on to say that just as a person, holding a lamp in his hand, looks at something and then puts the lamp aside, similarly the devotee, after having seen the object of knowledge with the help of knowledge, should renounce knowledge (that is, mental action) altogether." Concentration in meditation takes place only when the inflow of all sinful karma ceases, and there can be no question of dhyana for those whose minds are corrupted by sin.2 Milk turned into curds never becomes milk again: similarly, one whose soul has been purified by the knowledge of the truth is not contaminated by sins again.³ In conclusion, no real difference exists between the individual Self and the blissful higher Self: the former is so called when in bondage, and becomes the blissful higher Self again when it is released from bondage. There is, however, a great difference between the body and the Self, the former extremely impure and the latter extremely pure, and the Self should always be meditated upon after isolating it from the body. Just as oil remains separate in water, similarly the Self remains apart within the body." Those who know the truth should by proper means isolate the Self from the body in spite of their long association, just as clarified butter is ingeniously separated from curds. The relation between the body and the Self, the one with form and the other without form, is like that of a flower and its fragrance, a tree and its shade, and a face and its reflection." Somadeva's elaborate discourse on dhyana ends with a definition of asanas or Yogic postures viz. padmasana, virasana and sukhasana, and a few hints on the method of acquiring concentration during meditation. e) The next item of Samayika is the worship of Srutadevata or the presiding goddess of the Jaina scriptures, also called Sarasvati, like her Brahmanical counterpart. Somadeva, following his usual method, gives a 1 dipahasto yatha kascit kimcidalokya tam tyajet | jnanena jneyamalokya pascattam jnanamutsrjet || P. 398. 2 sarvapapastrave ksine dhyane bhavati bhavana | papopahatabuddhinam dhyanavartapi durlabha || 3 dadhibhavagatam ksiram na punah ksiratam vrajet | tattvajnanavisuddhatma punah papairna lipyate || 4 jivah sivah sivorjah kim bhedo'styatra kascana | pasabaddho bhavejjivah paramuktah sivah punah || atyanta malino dehah pumanatyanta nirmalah | dehadenam prthakkrtva tasmannityam vicintayet || 5 toyamadhye yatha tailam prthagbhavena tisthati | tatha sariramadhye'smin pumanaste prthaktatha || 6 dadhnah sarpirivatmayamupayena sariratah | prthakkiyeta tattvajnaisciram samsargavanapi || 7 puspamodau tarucchaye yadvat sakalaniskale | tadvattau dehadehasthau yadva lapanabimbavat || P. 399. 36

series of verses, composed by himself, to accompany the various offerings made to the goddess. The following verses are addressed to the goddess at the time of offering water, lights and incense respectively (P. 401 ): mordi Jinta yasyah padadvayamalamkrtiyugmayogyam lokatrayambujasarah praviharahari | tam vagvilasavasatim salilena devim seve kavidyutarumandanakalpavallim || ekam padam bahupadapi dadasi tusta varnatmikapi ca karosi na varnabhajam | seve tathapi bhavatimathava jano'rthi dosam na pasyati tadastu tavaisa dipah || caksuh param karanakandaradurite'rthe mohandhakaravidhutau paramah prakasah | taddhamagamipathaviksanaratnadipastvam sevyase tadiha devi janena dhumaih || The following verses mark the conclusion of the worship of srutadevata (P. 401 ) : kaladhautakamala mauktika dukula manijalacamaraprayaih | aradhayami devim sarasvatim sakalamangalairbhavaih || syadvadabhudharabhava munimananiya devairananyasaranaih samupasaniya | svantasritakhilakalankaharapravaha vagapagastu mama bodhagajavagaha || 'I worship Goddess Sarasvati with all-auspicious objects comprising golden lotuses, silken scarves studded with pearls, bejewelled curtains and fly-whisks. Like an elephant entering the waters of a river, may my intellect plunge into the River of Speech, whose current cleanses the mind of all its impurities, (the River) that rises from the Mount of Syadvada doctrine, is worthy of the veneration of the sages, and fit to be adored by the gods, having no other refuge!' The adoration of Srutadevata brings to a close the Samayika or customary worship, and Somadeva concludes this section with a devout prayer to Jina ( P. 402 ) : drstastvam jina sevito'si nitaram bhavairananyasrayaih snigdhastvam na tathapi yatsamavidhirbhakte virakte'pi ca | maccetah punaretadisa bhavati premaprakrstam tatah kim bhase paramatra yami bhavato bhuyat punardarsanam || XIII) The second Siksavrata is Prosadha or religious fasting on four days of the month (the eighth and fourteenth lunar days in each fortnight). He who observes this vrata should refrain from all sinful actions and practise self-control; and abstaining from bath, perfumes, bodily decoration, ornaments and women, observe fast and devote himself to religious meditation in a temple or on a hill or at home or in the woods." The inner spirit cannot become pure without the mortification of the body: what else but fire can purify gold? Failure to examine and sweep the ground before use, evil 1 snanagandhangasamskarabhusayosavisaktadhih | nivrttasarvasavadhakriyah samyamatatparah || devagare girau capi grhe va gahane'pi ba | uposito bhavennityam dharmadhyanaparayanah || P. 402. 2 visudhyennantaratmayam kayaklesavidhi vina | kimagneranyadastiha kancanasmavisuddhaye ||

actions, evil thoughts and abstention from the Avasyakas or obligatory duties' destroy the efficacy of the Prosadha vow.2 XIV) The third Siksavrata is the limitation of worldly enjoyment. Enjoyment is of two kinds. Food and other objects which can be used only once are called bhoga, and objects such as ornaments which can be used again and again are known as paribhoga. Both kinds of enjoyment should be kept within bounds to prevent 'mental obsession', and one should voluntarily practise abnegation when everything needed comes into one's possession. Abnegation may be of two kinds, yama and niyama, the former being for life and the latter for a limited period. Flowers and vegetables containing various living organisms, e. g., onions, Ketaki and Nimba flowers, One should also avoid and Surana roots should be forsaken for life." ill-cooked and prohibited food as well as food that has come in contact with or got mixed up with living organisms, and food that has not been prepared under one's own supervision." That which XV) The fourth Siksavrata is dana or charity. contributes towards one's own welfare and promotes the cultivation of the Three Jewels in others and brings relief to one's kinsmen as well as others is called dana.º Some practise charity with a view to attaining bliss in the next world, others to get it in this world, and there are also,those who Ho practise charity because it is proper to do so.10 Dana or charity is of four kinds, namely, gift of abhaya or protection, gift of food, gift of medicine and gift of sacred lore." Of these abhaya is the highest gift, and the wise should always give the first place to Next comes the gift of food, affording protection to all living creatures." and it is the duty of a householder to feed Jaina sadhus or holy men 1 (1) Samayika, avoidance of sin leading to equanimity; (2) praise of the twenty-four Arhats; (3) Vandana, homage to those having the mula and uttara-gunas; (4) Pratikramana, repentance; (5) kayotsarga, cure of spiritual faults by meditation ; (6) pratyakhyana, determination to avoid sin . 2 anaveksapratilekhanaduskarmarambhadurmanaskarah | avasyakaviratiyutascaturthamete vinighnanti || 3 yah sakrta sevyate bhavah sa bhogo bhojanadikah | bhusadi paribhogah syat paunahpunyena sevanat || 4 parimanam tayoh kuryaccittavyaptinivrttaye | prapte yogye ca sarvasminnicchaya niyamam bhajet || 5 yamasca niyamasceti dvau tyajye vastuni smrtau | yavajjivam yamo jneyah savadhirniyamah smrtah || 6 palanduketakinimbasumanahsuranadikam | tyajedajanma tadrupabahupranisamasrayam || P. 403. Compare Ratnakaranda-sravakacara_ III. 39: alpaphalabahuvighatanmulakamardrani srngaverani | navanitanimbakusumam kaitaka- mityevamavaheyam || 7 duspakvasya nisiddhasya jantusambandhamisrayoh | aviksitasya ca prasastatsamkhyaksatikaranam || S yathavidhi yathadesam yathadravyam yathagamam | yathapatram yathakalam danam deyam grhasramaih || P. 403. 9 atmanah sreyase'nyesam ratnatrayasamrddhaye | svaparanugrahayettham yat syattaddanamisyate || 10 paralokadhiya kascit kascidaihikacetasam | aucityamanasa kascit satam vittavyayastridha || 11 abhayaharabhaisajyasrutabhedaccaturvidham | 12 abhayam sarvasattvanamadau dadyat sudhih sada |

according to the nine-fold canon of hospitality consisting of reception, offering of a high seat, washing of the feet, adoration, salutation, affable speech, affable manners and affable temperament, and, lastely, purity of food." Particular attention should be paid to the quality and purity of the food, which should be seasonable and prepared at home and not brought from another locality nor purchased from the bazar.2 Food that has been touched by wicked people or consecrated to gods and Yaksas as well as offerings brought for mystic rites should not be given to the sadhus to eat.³ gap He who observes the Three Jewels, that is, the cardinal principles of Jainism, is the most deserving of those who are entitled to charity, and anything given to one who is not a follower of the Three Jewels is like seeds sown on barren soil. In fact, charity practised in favour of those who are attached to false doctrines and wrong conduct leads to evil consequences, like the feeding of serpents with milk.5 If one wishes to be charitable towards such people out of pity or from a sense of propriety, one should give them a residual portion of food to be taken away and not feed them in one's house. Even the sight of them during the reception of Jaina holy men leads to pollution, just as even pure water is contaminated by a vessel containing poison." One must not live or talk with or accord hospitality to Buddhists, Nastikas, Sacrificers, ascetics wearing matted hair (Saivas), Ajivaka mendicants and others of similar persuasion.³ Conversation with people ignorant of the fundamental truths, and corrupted by evil propensities, leads only to a free fight in which the parties belabour each other with sticks and pull each other's hair.9 There are five classes of people who are entitled to hospitality: the samayin, the sravaka, the sadhu, the suri and the samayadipaka. The samayin is an adherent of the Jaina faith and may be a layman or a monk. The sravaka is one who has an expert knowledge of astrology, incantations, omens and unseen things in general as well as the art of healing. The time for religious functions such as initiation, festivals and installation of idols cannot be fixed without his help, and Somadeva naively asks how the Jaina 1 pratigrahoccasanapadapujapranamavakkayamanahprasadah | vidhavisuddhisca navopacarah karya muninam grhasamsritena || P. 404. 2 gramantarat samanitam mantranitamupayanam | na deyamapanakritam viruddham va yathartukam || devayajnadikavidhatama ............mantranitamupayanam || ' | 4 taduttamam bhavet patram yatra ratnatrayam nare | yatra ratnatrayam nasti tadapatram vidurbudhah | uptam tatra vrtha sarvamusarayam ksitaviva || P. 406. 5 mithyatvagrasta cittesu caritrabhasabhagisu | dosayaiva bhaveddanam payahpanamivahisu || 6 karunyadathavaucityattesam kinciddisannapi | diseduddhrtamevannam grhe bhuktim na karayet || 7 satkaradividhavesam darsanam dusitam bhavet | yatha visuddhamapyambu visabhajanasamgamat || 8 sakya nastikayagasajatilajivaka dibhih | sahavasam sahalapam tatsevam ca vivarjayet || 9 ajnatatattvacetobhirduragrahamalimasaih | yuddhameva bhavedgosthayam dandadandi kacakaci ||

faith will progress if one has to ask the followers of other religions for information about these matters,¹ The sadhu is one who has accomplished religious austerities combined with the observation of the Mula and Uttaragunas, that is, the entire range of the Jaina religious vows. The suri is the leader of society in the sphere of knowledge as well as the practice of religion, and should be worshipped like a god, since he is like a boat for crossing the ocean of existence.3 The samayadipakas are men who advance the cause of the Jaina faith by their knowledge of the world, poetical faculties and other powers as well as eloquence and skill in disputation.* 5 It is useless to test the purity of monks for the purpose of giving them food: whether they are good or bad, the householder is purified by the mere act of giving. Besides, householders are in the habit of spending mony on so many things that it is not wise to consider the pros and cons of a gift too much. The greater the merits of a monk, the greater should be the respect shown to him; but those who are wealthy should use their money, acquired through luck, to help any follower of the Jaina faith, since a monk, conforming to the standard laid down by the scriptures, may or may not be available for the purpose of charity." The creed established by the great Jaina seers is professed by men of diverse faculties, and does not depend upon any single individual, just as a house does not rest on a single pillar.³ 10 Dana is of three kinds: rajasa, tamasa and sattvika. Charity accompanied by self-glorification, momentary, casual and lacking in conviction is known as rajasa. Charity practised through the agency of servants and slaves without any respect for the recipient or familiarity with him, and without any consideration of merit, is tamasa. Charity is sattvika when hospitality is spontaneous and the recipient worthy, and when the giver has certain qualities, namely, faith, contentment, reverence, knowledge, liberality, forbearance and ability." The sattvika form of charity is the best, the rajasa comes next, and the tamasa is the worst. Somadeva says in this connection 1 jyotirmantranimittajnah suprajnah kayakarmasu | diksayatrapratisthadyah kriyastadvirahe kutah | tadartham paraprcchayam katham ca samayonnatih || P. 407. 2 mulottaragunaslaghyaistapobhirnisthitasthitih | sadhuh sadhu bhavet pujyah punyoparjitapanditaih || 3 jnanakande kriyakande caturvarnyapurahsarah | surirdeva ivaradhyah samsarabdhitarandakah || 4 lokavittvakavitvadyairvadavagmitva kausalaih | margaprabhavanodyuktah santah pujya visesatah || 5 bhuktimatrapradane hi ka pariksa tapasvinam | te santah santvasato va grhi danena sudhyati || 6 sarvarambhapravrttanam grhasthanam dhanavyayah | bahudhasti tato'tyarthe na kartavya vicarana || 7 daivallabdham dhanam dhanyairvaptavyam samayasrite | eko munirbhavellabhyo na labhyo va yathagamam || 8 uccavacajanaprayah samayo'yam jinesinam | naikasmin puruse tisthedekastambha ivalayah || 9 yadatmavarnanaprayam ksanikaharthavibhramam | parapratyayasambhutam danam tadrajasam matam || P. 408. 10 patrapatrasamaveksyamasatkarama samstutam | dasabhrtyakrtodyogam danam tamasamucire || 11 atitheyam svayam yatra yatra patraniriksanam | gunah sraddhadayo yatra danam tat sattvikam viduh || A 01

that the statement (made by Brahmanical writers) that what is given in this life is recovered by the donor in the next life¹ is entirely false. Cows, for instance, are in the habit of eating water and grass, but they produce milk, something quite different." It is the duty of householders to remedy the ills of monks and saints, which may be of three kinds: physical ailments, mental worries and external troubles such as the rigours of cold and wind.³ If the laity neglect the sufferings of the monks, the latter cannot maintain their spiritual concentration, and the former will render themselves guilty of impiety. While the monks are engaged in expounding and studying the sacred texts, they should be comforted with lodging, food, books and other amenities. The holy textsthe Angas, Purvas, Prakirnas, Suktas and the utterances of the Kevalinswould entirely become extinct, if those who know the scriptures thoroughly were to perish on account of neglect. One should therefore help the monks to master the scriptures by sheltering and encouraging them and contributing to their joy, and by providing them with materials necessary for their study. It should be remembered that men, capable of physical labour, for instance, the carrying of arms, are easily available, but those who are endowed with real knowledge are rare like heroes. Knowledge alone can control the mind, like a spear controlling an elephant: without knowledge, physical labour is nothing but labour that is lost. One who concentrates on knowledge succeeds in external austerities without any effort, but, as a matter of fact, external activities no longer take place when the soul is immersed in knowledge. It is doubtful if a man without knowledge can destroy his karma even after ages, but a man who is endowed with knowledge and yoga is sure to destroy his karma in a moment." The man whose speech is not refined by the science of words, and whose intellect is not purified by right principles, is like a blind person labouring according to the convictions of others." 1 Cf. Naisadhacarita 5. 92 - danapatramadhamarnamihaikagrahi kotimgunitam divi dayi | sadhureti sukrtairyadi kartum paralaukika kusidamasidat || 2 yaddattam tadamutra syadityasatyaparam vacah | gavah payah prayacchanti kim na toyatrnasanah || P. 408. 3 sariramanasagantuvyadhisambadhasambhave | sadhusamyaminam karyah pratikaro grhasritaih | P. 409. 4 muninam vyadhiyuktanamupeksayamupasakaih | asamadhirbhavettesam svasya cadharmakarmata || (added from Mss.) 5 saumanasyam sadacaryam vyakhyatsu ca pathatsu ca | (added from Mss.) avasapustakahara saukaryadividhanakaih || angapurvaprakirnoktam suktam kevalibhasitam | nasyennirmulatah sarvam srutaskandhadharatyaye || 6 prasrayotsahananandasvadhyayocitavastubhih | srutavrddhan munin kurvaayate srutaparagah || 7 astradharanavadvahye klese hi sulabha narah | yatharthajnanasampannah saudira iva durlabhah || 8 srnivajjnanamevasya vasayasayadantinah | tadrte ca bahih klesah kesa eva param bhavet || 9 bahistapah svato'bhyeti jnanam bhavayatah satah | ksetrajne yannimagne'tra kutah syuraparah kriyah || 10 yadajnani yugaih karma bahubhih ksapayenna va | tajjnani yogasampannah ksapayet ksanato dhruvam || 11 sabdaitihyairna gih suddha yasya suddha na dhirnayaih | sa parapratyayat klisyan bhavedandhasamah puman ||

Somadeva mentions at the end of this section the various factors which destroy the value of charity. They are 'instructions to others' to make a gift on one's behalf, that is, lack of personal attention; jealousy at the liberality of others; lack of punctuality (in serving a guest); the practice of depositing food on sentient objects such as lotus leaves or covering it with same." XVI) The custom of sallekhana or fasting unto death is dealt with in VIII. 45. Somadeva says that the practice is to be followed when the body is about to perish, like a dry leaf or a lamp without oil. The hour of this last act of life comes when everyday the body loses strength and power of enjoyment, and is beyond remedy. Self-restraint, study, austerities, worship, and charity all become useless if the mind is not pure at the last hour of for life. Just as the training of a king, who has learnt the use of weapons twelve years, becomes useless if he faints on the battlefield; similarly the past One should conduct of a saint is of no avail if his mind is impure at the end." renounce one's affection for friends, infatuation with riches and illwill towards enemies, and then take proper steps (that is, resort to sallekhana) after confessing all sins before the head of the congregation. Food should be gradually given up and then beverages, both sweet and pungent; and one should thereafter abstain from everything with one's mind fixed on the five Paramesthins. There are five factors that destroy the efficacy of sallekhana: the desire to live longer, the desire to die to avoid suffering, longing for friends, recollection of past happiness and the desire for happiness in the next life.s XVII) In Yasastilaka VIII. 44 Somadeva interprets from the Jaina point of view a number of Brahmanical terms, which illustrates certain salient features of the Jaina outlook in religious matters. For instance, a Diksita is not one who kills goats and other animals in sacrifices, but one whose daily sacrifice consists in friendliness towards all creatures. Srotriya is not one who has external purity, but one who has nothing to do with wicked deeds and wicked men, and is kindly disposed towards all creatures.10 A Hota is not one who kindles the external fire, but one who 1 sardham sacittaniksiptavrtabhyam danahanaye | anyopadesamatsarya kalatikramanakriyah | P. 410. 2 tarudalamiva paripakkam snehavihinam pradipamiva deham | svayameva vinasonmukhamavabudhya karotu vidhimantyam || P. 413. 3 pratidivasam vijahadbalamujjhadbhuktim tyajat pratikaram | vapureva nrnam nigirati caramacaritrodayam samayam || 4 yamaniyamasvadhyayastapamsi devarcanavidhirdanam | etat sarvam nisphalamavasane cenmano malinam || 5 dvadasa varsani nrpah siksitasastro ranesu yadi muhyet | kim syattasyastravidheryatha tathante yateh puracaritam || 6 sneham vihaya vandhusu moham vibhavesu kalusatamahite | ganini ca nivedya nikhilam durihitam tadanu bhajatu vidhimucitam || 7 asanam kramena heyam snigdham panam tatah kharam caiva | tadanu ca sarvanivrttim kuryadgurupancakasmrtau niratah || 8 jivitamaranasamse suhrdanuragah sukhanubandhavidhih | ete sanidanah syuh sallekhanahanaye panca || 9 adrohah sarvasattvesu yaso yasya dine dine | sa puman diksitatma syanna tvajadiyamasayah || P. 421. 10 duskarmadurjanasparsi sarvasattva hitasayah | sa srotriyo bhavet satyam na tu yo bahyasaucavan || A

casts the fuel of good deeds in the spiritual fire with the formulas of kindness." A Sacrificer is defined as one who adores the deity with the flowers of pure thoughts, the mansion of the body with the flowers of vows, and the fire of the mind with the flowers of forbearance.² The Veda that pleases the wise is not the one which causes the destruction of all creatures in sacrifices, but the one which clearly makes known the difference between the body and the soul.³ The Threefold Lore (i. e. the Veda) is called Trayi, because it destroys the triad of birth, old age and death, the cause of transmigration.* A Brahmana is not one who is blind with the pride of birth, but one who does not destroy life, life, observes salutary vows, has knowledge, and is without desires and acquisition.³ The true Pancagnisadhaka (one who performs austerities amid five fires) is he who has controlled the five fires: lust, anger, pride, deceit and greed. Knowledge is Brahma, kindness is Brahma, and the destruction of lust is Brahma: when the soul rests securely on these, a man is called Brahmacarin." A Paramahamsa is not an ascetic who eats anything and everything like fire, but one who can (like a hamsa, swan) distinguish between karma and the soul, intermingled like water and milk.8 10 XVIII) The 46 th section of Book VIII, called Prakirnaka, which deals with certain miscellaneous topics, brings to a close Somadeva's elaborate discourse on the Jaina religion. It describes chiefly the six daily duties of a householder: worship of the deva i. e. Jina, adoration of the teacher, svadhyaya or study of spiritual lore, tapas or physical and mental activities leading to the purification of the soul by removing external and internal impurities, samyama or control of the passions and the senses, and the observance of the vows, and dana or charity. Kasaya (passion) is derived thus (P. 416): 11 12 'kasanti samtapayanti durgasamgatisampadanenatmanamiti kasayah krodhadayah | athava yatha visuddhasya vastuno naiyagrodhadayah kasayah kalusyakarinah, tatha nirmalasyatmano malinatva hetutvat kasaya iva kasayah | ' XIX) Stray allusions to Jaina tenets occur occasionally in the course of Utpreksas and similes. For example, manusyarupena parinatam dharmadvayamiva Book I, 1 adhyatmagnau dayamantraih samyakkarma samiccayam | yo juhoti sa hota syanna bahyagnisamedhakah || 2 bhavapuspairyajeddevam vratapuspairvapugrham | ksamapuspairmanovahnim yah sa yasta satam matah || 3 vivekam vedayeduccairyah sarirasaririnoh | sa priyai vidusam vedo nakhilaksayakaranam || 4. jatirjara mrtih pumsam trayi samsrtikaranam | esa trayi yatastrayyah ksiyate sa trayi mata || 5 ahimsah sadvrato dani niriho nisparigrahah | yah syat sa brahmanah satyam na tu jatimadandhalah || 6 kamah krodho mado maya lobhascetyagnipancakam | yenedam sadhitam sam syat krti pancagnisadhakah || P. 411. 7 jnanam brahma daya brahma brahma kamavinigrahah | samyagatra vasannatma brahmacari bhavennarah || 8 karmatmanorvivekta yah ksiranirasamanayoh | bhavet paramahamso'sau nagnivat sarvabhaksakah | P. 412. 9 devaseva gurupastih svadhyayah samyamastapah | danam ceti grhasthanam sat karmani dine dine | P. 414. 10 anuyogagunasthanamarganasthanakarmasu | adhyatmatattvavidyayah pathah svadhyaya ucyate || 11 antarbahirmalaplosadatmanah suddhikaranam | sariram manasam karma tamah prahustapodhanah || 12 kasayendriyadandanam vijayo vratapalanam | samyamah samyataih proktah sreyah srayitumicchatam ||

289 10. JAINA DOGMATICS AND MORAL AND SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINE p. 136. This is a reference to the Sagaradharma, the Rule of life prescribed for the householders, and the Anagaradharma, the Rule of life prescribed for the monks. Ibid.ha The two Pramanas recognised by Jaina doctrine, Pratyaksa and Paroksa, are referred to.in ga Ibid. The two pure Dhyanas, Dharmadhyana and Sukladhyana (see above), are meant.i.adhA reference to the two types of Naya, the method of comprehending things from a particular standpoint. While the Pramanas convey the whole truth, the Nayas reveal only partial truths. Broadly speaking, they are of two kinds: dravyarthika, which has in view the substance in its permanent aspect, and paryayarthika, which takes note of the modes of the fluctuating aspect of the substance and its qualities. at a Book II, p. 223. Naya is also classified into five nayapaddhatiriva syadvadasya or rather seven kinds: naigama, the non-analytical; samgraha, the collective; vyavahara, the practical; rjusutra, the straight or immediate; and sabda, the verbal or nominal. S'abda is subdivided into samabhirudha, the subtle, and evambhuta, the actual. According to Mallisena (Syadvadamanjari under verse 28), the Nyaya and Vaisesika systems follow the Naigama-naya; the Advaita Vedanta and the Samkhya are guided by the Samgraha-naya; the Carvaka school comes under the Vyavahara-naya; the Buddhists accept the Rjusutra-naya; and the Grammarians and others take their stand on the Sabda-naya. The method of comprehending things from such diverse standpoints is what Somadeva calls nayapaddhati, and the doctrine of Syadvada, known as saptabhanginaya, is represented as being based on the Naya method.3 The Syadvada doctrine itself is set forth as follows: (1) May be, it is; (2) may be, it is not; (3) may be, it is and it is not; (4) may be, it is indescribable; (5) may be, it is and yet indescribable; (6) may be, it is not and it is also indescribable; (7) may be, it is and it is not and it is also indescribable. The doctrine of Syadvada is claimed to be a great synthesis comprehending all the Nayas without any distinction. Malli- sena says in his Syadvadamanjari (under verse 30) that, just as disputants cease from their quarrels after resorting to an impartial judge, similarly the other Nayas, though mutually hostile, are reconciled in the system of the Arhat, their differences being smoothed over by the use of the expression Syat, may be'.s A Book V, p. 246. This is another refeanother 6 ka 1 For an explanation of these terms see S. C. Vidyabhushana: A History of Indian Logic, p. 170, and specially Dhruva: Syadvadamanjari of Mallisena, Notes, p. 279 if. 2 ' naigamanayadarsananusarinau naiyayikavaisesikau | samgrahabhiprayapravrttah sarve'pyadvaitavadah samkhyadarsanam ca | vyavaharanayanu- 2. pati prayascarvakadarsanam | rjusutrakrtapravrttabuddhayastathagatah | sabdadinayavalambino vaiyakaranadayah | ' 3 Srutasagara remarks : yatha nayapaddhatih syadvadasya mulam bhavati . He explains nayapaddhatih as naigamadinayana margah . 4 Vidyabhushana (op. cit.), p. 167. 5 yatha hi samicinam madhyastham nyayanirnetaramasadya parasparam vivadamana api vadino vivadadviramanti evam naya anyonyam vairayamana api sarvajnasasanamupetya syacchabdaprayogopasamita vipratipattayah santah parasparamatyantam suhrdbhuyavatisthante | ' rayamana api sarvajnasasanamupetya syacchabdaprayogopasamita vipratisa 37 37

:, rence to the Nayas. A marginal note in ms. A on navabhumika says but the ninefold classification of Naya is rather unusual. Perhaps the two broad divisions of dravyarthika and paryayarthika and the seven varieties of Naya are meant: of these naigama, samgraha and vyavahara come under dravyarthika-naya, while rjusutra, sabda, samabhirudha, and evambhuta are subdivisions of paryayarthika-naya. Somadeva may have in mind also the nine divisions of Naigamanaya mentioned in certain texts." ksapakasreniriva tapah pratyavayarahitaksonih Book I, p. 133. The reference is to the 'ladder' known as ksapakasreni mentioned in connection with the fourteen Gunasthanas or stages on the way to emancipation. There are, in fact, two ladders, upasama and ksapaka, for the suppression and destruction of Caritramohaniya-karma or Right-Conduct-Deluding Karma, and they emerge in the eighth Gunasthana. Briefly speaking, the Jiva ascends the ksapakasreni and devotes himself to the destruction of Karma, the last vestige of Caritramohaniya-karma being destroyed in the tenth Gunasthana, whence he passes to the twelfth Gunasthana. Interesting references to Ksapakasreni occur in Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusacaritra, e. g. "She mounted at once the ksapakasreni, and, the eight Karmas being destroyed, she attained omniscience at once from the eighth Gunasthana. "As he was reflecting rightly in this way, having ascended the ksapakasreni and having attained pure meditation, omniscience becomes manifest from the destruction of the destructive Karmas, like the light of the sun from the removal of a mass of clouds. " 3 A reference of the final stage of religious apprenticeship occurs in the following statement in Book I, p. 135: 27 'jinarupagrahanayogyatvaccaramacaravasamupasakadasamasritavadalam munikumarakayugalam ' Srutasagara takes this to mean the eleventh Pratima or stage in the life of a layman, known as uddistatyaga-pratima, wherein he begs his food and refuses what is specially prepared for him. Abhayaruci and Abhayamati are described as being in this stage of religious apprenticeship, as they were too young to lead the rigorous life of Digambara monks. References occur also to the twenty-two Parisahas and other miscellaneous topics. The three kinds of Karmandins or monks are mentioned in Book I, and Srutasagara explains the term as referring to Acarya, Upadhyaya and Sarvasadhu. 1 paryaya naigama, dravyanaigama, dravyaparyayanaigama etc. See Dhruva (op. cit.), p. 298. 2 For a detailed exposition of the Gunasthanas see Johnson's English Trans. of Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusacaritra, Vol. I, Appendix III. See also Pravacanasaroddhara I, p. 196 ff. for a discussion of 3 Johnson's Trans. (op. cit.), pp. 197, 378. 4 ' apataduhsahairmahaparisahairiva ' Book I. 5 'trividhasyapi karmadivrndasyotpadita pritih ' Ibid.