Chapter 4 - Yashastilaka as a prose romance

The history of Sanskrit prose romances shows a lamentable gap after the masterpieces of Bana and Subandhu; and when prose romances reappear two centuries later, they bear the impress of new influences and point to a somewhat different literary environment. In the first place, most of the Sanskrit prose romances of the tenth and eleventh centuries were composed by Jaina writers, who were eager to expound and glorify their religion, and may be said to have introduced a religious element into this branch of literary composition. In the second place, there is an increased tendency to mix prose with verse, and the two earliest extant Campus were, in fact, composed in the tenth century. Somadeva's Yasastilaka owes a good deal to Bana and Subandhu in the matter of style and the treatment of conventional topics, but it differs from all other Sanskrit prose romances in so many respects that it may be said to stand in a class by itself. Apart from its special characteristics as a prose narrative, Yasastilaka combines features which bring it into relation with diverse branches of Sanskrit literature. It is not only a Jaina romance in prose and verse but a learned compendium of Jaina and non-Jaina philosophical and religious doctrines, a manual of statecraft, and a great repository of Kavya poetry, ancient tales, citations and references, and numerous rare words of lexical interest. Somadeva's Yasastilaka is a work of massive scholarship enlivened by occasional flashes of literary genius and poetic feeling. Among his predecessors in the field of prose romances, Somadeva mentions Bana in Yasastilaka, Book IV, and shows some acquaintance with his works, especially the Kadambari. He clearly refers to the deprecation of the life of the Sabara hunters uttered by the parrot in Bana's romance, and quotes a phrase from the passage in question. Somadeva's claim that the religion of the Arhat enjoys great renown in the works of Bana among others should, however, be taken with a grain of salt. Bana, indeed, refers to Jaina mendicants carrying peacock feathers in Kadambari as well as Harsacarita, and in the former work describes Vilasavati as respectfully offering food to naked Jaina mendicants called Siddhas and asking them questions about the future. The Jinadharma, compassionate to living 1 aharah sadhujananindito madhumamsadiriti katham cedam mrgayopayoganandam sabaravrndam nindatavadi banena | 2 ' kaiscit ksapanakairiva mayurapicchadharibhih ' Kadambari; 'siksitaksapanakavrttaya iva vanamayurapicchacayanu faraa: Harsacarita, Book II. 3 'svayamupahrtapindapatran bhaktipravanena manasa siddhadesan nagnaksapanakan papraccha | '

creatures, is mentioned in Kadambari.' But the sight of a naked and unwashed Jaina mendicant with his peacock feathers is mentioned among certain evil omens enumerated in Harsacarita, Book V.2 Somadeva is not only influenced by Bana and Subandhu in the conventional descriptions such as those of the seasons, morning ard evening scenery, mountains, kings and countries etc., but also borrows an idea here and there from the earlier writers. The description of the different categories of villains and their origin in Yasastilaka, Book III, is obviously suggested by that of the fourteen families of nymphs and their origin in Kadambari. The famous advice of Sukanasa to Candrapida has its counterpart in Yasasatilaka, Book II. The conglomeration of picturesque names of women in brief sentences occurring towards the end of the same Book is a device already found in Kadambari, Harsacarita and Vasavadatta. The enumeration of evil omens in Yasastilaka, Book IV, may be compared with the similar lists in Harsacarita, Books V and VI. Dust in Kavya literature is not as trifling a thing as one might suppose, and the description of the battle scene and the resulting dust in Yasastilaka, Book III, is forestalled in Vasavadatta; while Bana in Kadambari pays attention to the dust raised by Candrapida's expedition. A brief description of a cremation ground occurs in Subandhu's work; but the similar account in Yasastilaka, Book I, is in verse and far more elaborate and serves a different purpose. These and other similarities between Yasastilaka and the romances of Bana and Subandhu would appear to be superficial in face of the essential differences in style, outlook, and the character of the respective stories. The style of Bana and Subandhu, though by no means simple, is simpler than that of Somadeva's prose; and the Jaina narrative shows, on the whole, a greater elaboration of details than is found in Kadambari and Vasavadatta. It is noteworthy that Somadeva has chosen to employ the involved style even in the moral and religious tales narrated in Yasastilaka, Books VI and VII; and one of the factors which makes his prose less attractive than that of Bana and Subandhu is the use of rare and obsolete words, which, though valuable from a philological point of view, makes Yasastilaka a far more difficult work than the earlier prose are undoubtedly more romances. Many of the descriptive passages complicated and artificial than those of Kadambari. One may contrast, for example, the portrait of Jabali with that of Sudatta in Yasastilaka , Book I; the picture of the Salmali tree in the Vindhya forest in Bana's 1 'jinadharmeneva jivanukampina '. 2 ' kajjalamaya iva bahudivasamupacitabahalamalapatala malinitatanurabhimukhama jagama sikhipicchalanchano nagnatakah | '.

romance with the unwieldy description of the huge tree in the valley of the Suvela mountain towards the beginning of Yasastilaka, Book V; and Bana's beautiful portrayal of the trees around the Siva temple where Mahasveta worshipped with the Jaina author's laboured description of the pleasure garden in Yasastilaka, Book I. Similarly, the enumeration of different varieties of plants illustrated in Subandhu's description of the seashore in Vasavadatta is overdone in Somadeva's picture of the great forest in Yasastilaka, Book V. It may be said, on the whole, that in natural descriptions Somadeva is far excelled by Bana and Subandhu; and there is nothing in Yasastilaka which will bear comparision with the serene picture of the rule of concord and harmony governing the life of animals and human beings in Jabali's hermitage, as described in Bana's Kadambari. Lengthy and detailed descriptions of female beauty, so wearisome to readers of Sanskrit prose romances, are practically absent in Yasastilaka owing to the very nature of the subject-matter. More important than the question of style is the fundamental difference between the story of Yasodhara and the romantic tales of Kadambari and Vasavadatta. The salient feature of the story of Yasodhara is that it is a realistic tale based on a domestic tragedy, even an unpleasant incident of domestic life, around which is woven a story of moral and religious edification. It was a daring experiment on the part of Somadeva to have composed a romance, of which adultery and murder were two prominent features, in the grand style of Bana and Subandhu; and Yasastilaka, is, as a matter of fact, the only considerable Sanskrit prose romance which deals with tragic incidents of conjugal life, eschewing romantic love in favour of grim realities and the workings of fate. From this standpoint Yasastilaka may be described as a realistic novel, and the note of realism is accentuated by the complete absence of the miraculous except in a few minor episodes independent of the main story. This appears to be a noteworthy characteristic of Somadeva's work when we remember the part played by the miraculous in all other Sanskrit prose romances from Kadambari to Gadyacintamani. Two other characteristic features of Yasastilaka may be emphasized: it is a vivid picture of certain aspects of contemporary life and society as well as a great religious romance; and in both respects it differs widely not only from Kadambari and Vasavadatta but from the remaining Sanskrit prose romances. These points have been dealt with in subsequent chapters, and we may here attempt a somewhat detailed treatment of Somadeva's prose as far as it is represented in his Yasastilaka. As is usual in Sanskrit prose romances, long-winding descriptions preponderate in Yasastilaka to the detriment of the narrative, and are

often complicated by conglomerations of intricate and loosely constructed compounds of considerable length. There is, however, no doubt that Somadeva has at his command a rich variety of details, and shows an intimate knowledge of diverse phases of the life of his times. The conventional descriptions are mostly involved and artificial, but there are others simpler and more effective, mostly dealing with topics peculiar to the romance, and by no means frequent in Kavya literature. We may start, for example, with the picture of the dread goddess Candamari in Book I (p. 150): yasyah kapalamalah sikhandamandanani, savasisavah sravanavatamsah, pramitaprakosthah karnakundalani, paretakikasa- manayah kanthabhusanani, parasunalarasah sariravarnakani, gatajivitakarankah karakridakamalani, sidhusindhavah samdhyacamanakulyah, pitrvanani viharabhumayah, citabhasitani candrakavalah, candata kamai carmani, sarasanam mrtakantracchedah, pranartanapradesah samsthitorahsthalani, kandukavinodah stabhottamangaih, jalakelayah sonitadirghikabhih, nisavalipradipah smasanakrsanukilabhih , pratyavasanopakaranani narasirah karotibhih, mahanti dohadani ca sarvasattvopaharena | "Garlands of human skulls are her head-ornament. Corpses of children are her ear-ornament. The elbows of dead men are her earrings. Balls made from the bones of dead bodies form her necklaces. The oozings from the leg-bones of corpses serve as her cosmetics. Skeletons play the part of toy-lotuses in her hands. Rivers of wine are the streams wherein she performs her evening ablutions. Charnel-fields are her pleasure grounds. The ashes of funeral pyres are her face-ornament. Raw hides constitute her robe. The intestines of dead bodies form her girdle. The bosoms of dead men are her dancing floor. She plays with the heads of goats as with balls. Her water-sports take place in lakes of blood. The blazing fires of cremation-grounds serve as her votive lamps at night. Human skulls are the vessels she eats from. Her greatest pleasure is when living creatures of all kinds are sacrificed at her altar.' 27 The description of the shrine of the goddess, the Mahabhairava temple, gives a good idea of a contemporary cult of savage character, and is perhaps the most elaborate picture of its kind in Sanskrit literature; and, although in this respect Somadeva is anticipated by Bana in his description of the temple of Candika in Kadambari, and by Haribhadra in his verse description of the temple of Kadambari or Candika in Samaraiccakaha (Book VI), the corresponding account in Yasastilaka preserves The delineation of the surging interesting details not recorded elsewhere." crowd of the Mahayoginis in the temple, for example, although fantastic to some extent, graphically presents the grim aspect of these monstrous deities, "extremely ferocious and long-limbed like the Nights of universal destruction". "They were emerging with fury from the surface of the sky , 1 See Chap. II.

from the earth, from the depths of the nether regions, and from all the corners of the sky, like darkness at night. " " The banners of the Sun's aerial car were singed by the flames issuing from the eye on their foreheads, being fanned by the gaspings of the hapless serpents, ruthlessly pressed in the tangled masses of their hair; while the Sun's rays were obstructed by the huge vultures hovering about the gruesome skulls decorating their heads; and the ornamental designs of blood painted on their cheeks were being lapped up by the snakes adorning their ears." 21 of Yasodhara spy A notable picture is the dramatic appearance of the in the streets of Ujjain with his grotesque dress and clamorous retinue (Chap. III, p. 397): krtakardhacandracumbitacandrakapidavidambitamundamandalah, tulinikusumakunाlakrtijatusotkarsita karnakundalah, karma- kuvaliphalasthulatrapusa- nanekajatajatijatitakanthikavagunthanajatharakanthanalah, ciracelaciricarcitavicitraprapadinapralambajalah, manivinirmitangadasampaditaprakandamandanah, kurparaparyantaprakostha prakalpita gavalavalyavarundanah, kakanantikaphalamaloparacitavaikaksaka- baksahsthalah, kathorakamathaprsthasthilasthaputapanitalah, 'pataccaraparyanagoniguhyapihitamehanah, puranataramandiramekhalalamkrtanitambanive- sanah, kamsa hamsakara sitavacalacaranacaracaturiksobhitavithi janamanaskarah, katareksanavisanakkana viniveditanisabalipracarah , kiratavesasya bhagavato visvamurteraparameva kamapyakalpam bibhranah, putrabhanda bandivrndarakasya katakadhipateh , jamirbhogavalipathinah subhatasauhardasya, dauhitrah srotriyakitavanamno narmasacivasya samasrayasthanamavakirnilokanam, akhilapunarbhuvivahakrtakasipuvetana- sambandhah, sakalagokulalikhita tuvarasurabhisairibhidaya nibandhah, pracura pratika vikrtagatraih sattriputrairdandajinitraisca parivrajakaih 'esa khalu bhagavan samjatamahayoginisamgati tindriyajnanodgatih siddhah samevikah samvanana karinah kesarinama samgamayati vidvesamesajena jananimapyatmajesu vairigim vidadhati itya vedyamanajnanamantratantraprabhavah | was "His head was adorned with a crown of peacock feathers surmounted by a crescent, and he was wearing earrings made of red lac and shaped like the flowers and buds of the silk-cotton tree. The neck stiffened by the fastening of a necklace made out of many varieties of magic roots, and he was wearing a garland made from shreds of old rags, multicoloured, and reaching to the feet. The upper arms were decorated with armlets made of tin balls large as plums, and the forearms enveloped with buffalo-horn bracelets up to the elbows; while a garland of Gunja berries served the purpose of a vaikaksaka wreath across the bosom. The hands were. rugged like the bony frame of the carapace of a tortoise, and the privy parts were covered with the lower edge of an old saddle cloth. The waist was decorated with a girdle of worn out churning ropes and the attention of the passers-by was attracted by the nimble gait of his feet resounding with the brass anklets worn by him. He announced his nocturnal rites with the sound of his buffalo -horn; and he was, in fact, 1 ' kapardanirdayasammardanirmodalagardaga laguhasphuratphutkaraspharitalalatalocananalajvalaglapinaditisuta niketanapataka bhoga- *(0) bhih, sikhandamanda noddamaranarasirahsreniparyantabhrantapravrddhagrdhaniruddha braghnadidhitiprabandhabhih, sravanabhusanabhujangajihaliya - manakapolatala likhita raktapatrabhih ' (p. 45 ). 8

dressed in an attire exactly like that of Lord Siva disguised as the Kirata hunter. He was the son of the chief panegyrist Katakadhipati (Camp commander), the son-in-law of the minstrel Subhata-sauharda (Friend of Warriors), the grandson of the jester Srotriyakitava (Brahmana Gambler) and the refuge of all who had transgressed their vows. His food and emoluments were earned by arranging the nuptials of all the harlots', and he had endowments of hornless cows and she-buffaloes registered in his favour in all the dairy farms. The glory of his wisdom and knowledge of mystic formulas and rites was proclaimed in the following manner by religious mendicants, carrying sticks and deerskins, and acting as informers, with bodies made ugly by excessive decorations: 'Here is the Exalted One who has communed with the Mahayoginis and acquired supersensuous knowledge. He has attained spiritual perfection, and his utterances are unfailingly true. By his art of enchantment he can unite even a lion with an elephant, and by means of animosity-producing drugs he can make even a mother an enemy of her children!' The picture of the elephant-driver in Book IV is a minute study in ugliness, which is emphasized in such a manner as to suggest the enormity of the queen's strange infatuation. He is described as sleeping on the floor of a thatched hut strewn with grass left over from the ration of elephants, resting his head on a heap of coiled up ropes serving as a pillow. His only clothing was a piece of rag used for rubbing elephants with oil. He had coarse thornlike hair; ears like old shoes; eyes like the mouth of a bucket; lips like the fringe of a leather oil-flask gnawed off by rats; cheeks like the hollow of an age-worn tree; teeth protruding like an irregular row of cowries; a chin hardly visible, as he had a regular goat's beard; a throat with the veins visible, resembling the trunk of a castor-oil plant; arms like a couple of dead serpents suspended from on high; a stomach bloated like inflated billows; and thighs like stakes damaged by fire. He was repulsive to sight like a mass of sins, and extremely disgusting like a charnel-field. He appeared to be a compact mass of iron rust in human shape, and fashioned by the Creator by combining all kinds of deformities.' The original passage runs as follows (Chap. IV, p. 42): 6 katankarakutirake karikavalava sistaya va sasrastarini ' avagunthitarajjupunjaparikalpitasiraspade nidrayantam, ibhabhyanga- karpatapihitalajjasthanam atikathinakacakantako dumaramundamandalam, anavanupadina patalasamasravasam, udancanasusirati- sayilocanam, undura vikartaritasamgha tatatatulitobhayadasanavasanam, atipuranakujakotara pratimalagalam asamasthapitavarata- kavikatadantam, ajasmasrudurdarsacibukamavyam . erandakandavidambi dhamanilagalanalam, . • ulambitamrta gonasanukariksipasti- 1 srutasagara says punarbhunam pumscalinam samgrahastrividhavanam . 2 Obviouly employed by the court. 3 Cf. the Greek phrase pogon mala tragikos (Lucian, The Dream, 10). 4 This is the reading of Ms. A. The printed text reads....

4. PASASTILAKA AS A PROSE ROMANCE .. 59 nirgamama, anilabhrtabhastradhmatajatharam,agnilanghitasthanuganano rukam, aghasamghatamiva duriksyam, amangalasthanamiva nitaramudvejaniyam, akhandamandurakulamiva manusyarupena parinatam, akhilamiva vairupyamavacitya vedhasa nispaditam .. The account of the regiments of Yasodhara's army has more than a literary interest, and is full of important details throwing light on the composition of old Indian armies. It is one of the most remarkable descriptions not only in Yasastilaka but in Sanskrit literature as a whole (chap. III, p. 461 etc.): nitilatatapattikapratanaghatitodbhatajutam, utkosakimsukaprasunamanjari jalajatila visanavikatamekasrngamrgamandalamiva, kartarimukha cumbitamulasmasrubalam, udbhidyamanamadatilakitakapolam pilukulamiva, kirmiramanivinirmita trisarakanthikam mahamandalava- gunthitagalanala manyamisana sainyamiva, akuphanikrtakalaya savalaya karalakarabhogam balabilesayavestitavitapabhagam bhadrasriyanokaha- gahanamiva, anabhidesottambhitasidhenukam ahisvaranubaddhamadhyamekhalam manthanakacalamiva, avanksanotksiptanibidanivasana sakaupinam vaikhanasavrndamiva, anekankanamasambhavanodgrivananam, atmastavadambaroddamarama gadhotkarnitavadanam, urdhvanakharekha- likhitadehaprasadam deva idam vihitavividhayudhavartanaucityam daksinatyam balam | "Sire, this is the Deccan regiment practised in the use of diverse arms. The luxuriant tangle of the hair of the men is tied up with cloth bands around their foreheads. Conspicuous by the horns carried by them, entwined with sprays of fullblown Palasa flowers, they look like a troop of rhinoceroses; and with the tips of their knives coming up to the roots of their beards, they resemble a troop of elephants with the cheeks dotted with flowing ichor. They are wearing triple necklaces made of many-coloured beads, and look like Siva's troops, awful on account of their necks being enwrapped with Mahamandala serpents. They have the forearms enveloped with iron bracelets worn up to the elbows and resemble a thicket of sandal trees with the branches entwined by young snakes. With their daggers fixed about the centre of the waist, they resemble the mountain wherewith the gods churned the ocean, with its central slope encircled by the lord of serpents (Vasuki). With their thick loin-cloths tucked up as far as their the thigh-joints, they look like a crowd of religious mendicants wearing kaupina. They are looking up on hearing the many laudatory poems, and stand with upturned faces, as they listen to the minstrels loudly reciting exuberant panegyrics in their honour. Their bodies are scratched all over with upward lines of finger-nail marks." itasca paryantakharvitakuntalatayardhamustimita mastakamadhyakesam, atipralambasravanadesadolayamanasphara suvarnakarnika kira- nakotikamaniyamukhamandalataya kapolasthali parikalpitapraphullakarnikara kananamiva samutkarsitasrkka cibu kajanghagrabhagaromalomasam, aharahah pramarjitadasanaprakasapesalavadanataya pradarsitasvakiyayasah prasutiksetramiva, anangagrahaparivesavartuladantaksataksapitabhujasikharam, anavarataksaratksaparasaragaraktasitisarirataya kajakimjalkakalusakalindi kallolakulamiva, mayurabarhatapatraprabhasyamikasampaditagagana- garudopalakuttimacchayam, daradadravapatala phalakantikutilakolasalalasakaram samdhya garbhavibhrantamriyasamdarbhanirbharam nabha iva, deva, idamane dolikavilam dramilam balam | "This, Sire, is the Tamil regiment provided with numerous litters. The men have a mere handful of hair on the crown of their heads owing

to the hair all around being cropped short. They seem to have clusters of full-blown Karnikara blossoms attached to their cheeks on account of their countenances being lovely with the shooting rays of the large gold earrings swinging from their elongated ears. They are shaggy on account of the profuse growth of hair on the borders of the lips, the chins, and the frontal part of the legs. They seem to be displaying the source of their fame', their visage being beautiful with the lustre of their daily cleaned teeth. Their upper arms are dented with the marks of bites (given by their mistresses), round as the halo of a planet, to wit, the god of love. They look like the waves of the Yamuna blended with the filaments of lotus blossoms, their dark bodies being painted with fluid turmeric ceaselessly dripping. With the blue sheen of their parasols made of peacock feathers they have caused the sky to look like an emerald floor; and with their hands playfully moving along their curved loins shining with the lustre of their shields painted with liquid red lead, they look like the sky full of flashes of lightning playing in the bosom of the evening clouds . ., " itascottaptakancanakantakaya parikaram karottambhitakartarikanayakrpanaprasapattisabanasanam asanavisesavasatividruta . mitadravakhuraksobhitakumbhinibhagam, bhagabhagarpitanekavarnavasanavestitosnisam, anavadhiprakaraprasavastabakacumbitasikham vijayasri- nivasavanamivedam, deva, turagavegavarnanodirnam yathayathakathamauttarapatham balam | "Here, Sire, is the North Indian regiment of truthful speech, and elcquent in praise of the speed of horses. The men have bodies comely as heated gold; and held fast in their hands are knives, darts, daggers, spears, blades and bows. The surface of the earth is agitated by the hooves of their horses galloping at top speed on account of their particular mode of riding. They wear puggrees made up with multicoloured scarves arranged in layers; and with the crown of their heads adorned with clusters of flowers of endless varieties, they look like the sylvan abode of the goddess of victory." itasca .." .... kari vairaistamalitakhilasavalayam anavaratacipitacarvanadirgadasanapradesairguvakaphalakasayita- badanavrttibhih svabhava|devatikopanahrdayai raprapadi na colakaskhalitagati vailaksyotksiptaparyantajanadurvagvidhibhih prakamayamalomacudai - .......... ahavaikanuragam, gaudairakulitasakala sainikam, vicitrasutragumphitaspharapharakotkara karburitasarvadaksayanidesam, deva, idam jalayuddhabaddhakriyavisesasaktam tairabhuktam balam | " "Here, Sire, is the Tirhut regiment, fond solely of war and devoted to manoeuvres incidental to naval combats³: it has darkened the entire horizon ...All the troops of this regiment are with its mighty elephants........ 1 Fame in Sanskrit poetry is always white. 2 Amarginal note in Ms. A says usnisah sirovestakiritayoh | atra tu paghadi mudasa . 8 This seems to be a reference to river operations. The Deopara stone inscription of Vijayasena of Bengal (about the end of the eleventh century speaks of the royal fleet going up the entire course of the Ganges for the conquest of the western regions (a). Ep. Ind ., Vol. I, p. 309. aniwo al

disturbed by the Gauda soldiers with extremely long tufts of hair: the extremities of their teeth are worn out by constant chewing of flattened rice, and their mouths are tinged red with betel; they are by nature exceedingly irascible, and hurl abuse at the bystanders, being ashamed of stumbling on account of their cloaks reaching to the feet. The large shields of the regiment made from multicoloured cords have tinged the entire expanse of the sky with diverse hues. itascajanulambamana nivasanam, mahisavisanaghatitamustikatarakotkatakatibhagam, nirantaraghanadirghadehalomakalapa- kalpitasarvanginakankatam, adhastiryakprabandha pravrddhakurcakesataya kriyanumeyanabhinasanayanasravanadesam ubhayamsottambhitabhuribhastra- taya trisironisacaranikamiva, laghudrdhaduskaraduralaksyadipatadipatavapahasitakrpakrpa dharma karnarjunadronadrupadabhargabhargavam, dhrtadhi- jyajakavam, deva, idam gaurjaram balam || "This, Sire, is the Gujarat regiment armed with strung up bows. The men are wearing cloaks reaching to the knees, and their loins are girt with daggers with buffalo-horn hilts. The close, dense and long hair of their bodies constitutes an all-enveloping armour; and the existence of certain portions of their bodies, the navel, the eyes and the ears, can only be inferred from their actions, owing to their beards expanding thickly downwards and side wise. They look like a throng of three-headed monsters on account of the large quivers attached to both the shoulders. They surpass even Krpa, Krpadharma, Karna, Arjuna, Drona, Drupada, Bharga and Bhargava in efficiency, in swift aiming, vigorous shooting, and hitting of difficult and distant targets." The report of the spy against a minister of Yasodhara and the account of the embassy sent by the king of Pancala to the latter's court , in Book III, are not only socio-political records of great value but interesting prose. The as good specimens of Somadeva's simpler style and businesslike account of the embassy has been reproduced elsewhere' and we may here give a few illustrative extracts from the former document. It is necessary to point out that the spy's report, comprehensive as it is, contains, besides specific charges against the minister in question, a satire in prose and verse against ministers in general, quasi-historical traditions, and observations on human traits. 110 115 Speaking of villains, the spy gives a fanciful account of their origin, classifying them into eighteen different groups. The first group originated from the Kalakuta poison in Siva's throat; the second from serpents; the third from the ferocious beak of Garuda; the fourth from the moon of the fourth lunar day (believed to cause disputes); the fifth from the attendants 1 See Chap. V.

of Death; the sixth from the dust of a libertine's feet¹; the seventh from fire; the eighth from hell; the ninth from the illusion created by Visnu; the tenth from the jaws of the god of death; the eleventh from the evil ways taught by heretic schools; the twelfth from the sin of doubt and hesitation; the thirteenth from burning shame; and the fourteenth from the arts of deception. In addition to these, one group of villains originated from darkness, whence arose in the sky Rahu, the enemy of the other planets. A second group originated from the quarrel of Brahma and Visnu at the time of the glorification of the Phallic Siva², whence arose also the sage Narada, the lover of disputes. A third group originated from the clash of thunder and lightning, whence arose also the submarine fiare. A fourth group of villains originated from Diti who gave birth to Taraka, the demon who habitually cheated all pious people on the earth. This account of the origin of villains appears to be Somadeva's invention, and shows imagination and selective power, although in design he is indebted to the story of the fourteen families of nymphs and their origin in Bana's Kadambari. An indirect reference to this occurs in the passage in Yasastilaka which runs as follows (Chap. III, p. 441): deva, apsarasamivamaresu naresvapi kila khalanam caturdasa kulani pura pradurbabhuvuh | tatra tavat prathamam pramatha- nathakanthalamkaranikatata kalakutat pradurasit, dvitiyam dvijihvebhyah, trtiyam trksatmajatundacandatayah The irresistible and invariable character of the evil propensities of a man is illustrated with various examples. Addressing the king, the spy says: deva, mamsarasaratasya pumsah kimiva mamsatratam | kapale bhunjanasya hi narasya ka iva kesadarsanadasapratyadesah | pure pramosadaksasya hi purusasya keva kantare'peksa | nirambaranitambayamatmambayam dahodyogasya hi janasya ka iva parambaya- mambara parityagah | yatah sthitasum grasamanasya gatasau kidrsi daya | parabale krpa kaiva svabalena balikriye || "Sire, how can a man who is fond of the savour of meat undertake a vow of abstention from flesh eating? Does a man who eats from a skull stop eating on discovering the presence of hair in his food? Does a man who is expert in stealing in the city need a forest for his activities? How will a man whose passion is aroused at the sight of his naked mother react to the nudity of another's mother? Because, how can one who devours the living have pity on a corpse? How can one who sacrifices his own child be compassionate to that of another?" 3. 174. 1 'sastham satprajnapadaparagat ' 2 This seems to be a reference to the quarrel of the two gods about the extent of the Phallus. See Chap. XVII. Somadeva says: q kandalat · Srutasagara says: khandaparasorvasikaranavasare brahmavisnuyuddhata .

deva, khabhavaja hi dustyaja khalu prakrtih | na khalu posito'pyahipoto jahati himsadhyavasayam, na khalu vratasilo'pi bidalastyajati krauryam, na khalu prayopavesanavasinyapi kuttani muncati paravancanocitam cintam, na khalu kalakavala nikato spi kirato rahati sathyasthitim | yatah yah svabhavo bhavedyasya sa tena khalu dustyajah | na hi siksasatenapi kapirmuncati capalam || "Sire, verily it is difficult to renounce one's natural propensities. A young snake, though nourished with food, does not renounce the effort to do harm. A cat, though he may practise religious observances, dose not give up his ferocity. A bawd, though she observes religious fasts, does not abandon the design of cheating others. A merchant' does not give up his art of deception even when he is on the verge of death. Because, verily, of whatever nature a person may be, it is hard for him to discard it. A monkey never forsakes his fickle habits even if he is given a hundred kinds of training," 3. 175. The tirade against the ministers of kings in verse, forming part of the spy's report, has been summarized elsewhere; and there is also a satirical description of them in prose (Chap. III, p. 439 ) : deva, saralasvabhavasya devasyamatyadaityanamakalpodascah pratikriyaprapascasca sadhutayoge'nurage ca karanam | tatra camisametattatparyam | tatha hi satpurusaprsatavadhaya vyadhasyakhilangasamvaranam yatravaranamivamatyajanasya lambancalakam colakam, mugdhaminabandhananayamiva mahakayah kurcakesanikayah, kapatabakotapetakaghatanaya sara ivodaramudaram, paravyasananvesanaya mrgadhurtasyeva mandamandacarah padapracarah, kathamete khalu patalasthah karastha mama bhavisyanti sesasikhamanaya iti luntakatayeva muhurmuhurjalesu nimajjanam, kada hyami gaganacarah kadanakandukavinodakara mama bhavisyanti ravirathaturanga ityapajihirsayevaditi- sutopasanam, are hatasa hutasa mayi satyasrayase sarvase ca katham nama tannamavan bhavanitirsyaye trahutimisena visamarici - tadanama, suprayuktasya dambhasya brahmapyantam na gacchatiti manisaya sadhujanasakunihananaya dvipidvijoddipana miva devatarcanam, kiyanto maya mahantah prataritah kiyanto nadyapi iti sambhalanayeva japavyavasayah, kusalasakulasanaya bakasyeva dhyanaparata, caturavancanaya thakasyeva dharmagamapathah, paralokagatibhangaya nigalajalasyeva gurucaranopacarah, sakinijanasyeva sevakesu jivita- vinasaya priyamvadata, avijnatantastattvasya suskasarah setoriva klesaya priyalokata | "Sire, the pomp of dress and flurry of remedial measures of those devils, the ministers of Your Majesty, straightforward as you are, are intended to give an impression of honesty and loyalty. Their real purpose is as follows: The flowing robes of ministers are like a hunter's cloak enveloping all his limbs, and designed to kill honest people, like deer. The huge mass of their beard and hair seems to be a drag-net for capturing ignorant fools, like fish. Their big bellies are like a pool for amassing tricks, like a flock of cranes. They walk slowly and slowly like jackals to look for the weak points of others. A minister makes very frequent ceremonial dips into waters, as if with a thievish purpose: How will indeed the crest-jewels of the serpent Ananta abiding in the nether regions come into my possession?" He worships the Sun, as if with motives of robbery: When will those 1 Ms. A explains phirata as vaniku .

out 64 YASASTILAKA AND INDIAN CULTURE horses of the Sun's chariot, coursing in the sky, play the ball-game of war for me?' He strikes the Fire by way of offering oblations, as if out of spite, saying: 'Since it is I who destroy my own refuge or benefactor, and destroy also all and sundry, why dost thou , o wretched Fire assume the names asrayasa (one who consumes one's own refuge) and sarvasa (one who consumes all)?' The worship of the gods by a minister is comparable to letting loose a bird of prey for killing honest people, like birds, with the idea that not even Brahma sees through a well-devised trick. The muttering of prayers by a minister seems to be a device for recalling how many great men he has cheated and how many still remain uncheated. The meditation of a minister is like that of a crane for the purpose of 'devouring' able men, like fish. The study of the Law Books by him is like that of a thug for the purpose of cheating the wise. His obeisance at the guru's feet looks like the spreading of a network of chains for obstructing the way to heaven. His sweet words, like those of a witch, serve only to ruin his followers, His amiable looks, like the pleasant aspect of the embankment of a dried up pool, bring distress to those who are ignorant of the inner truth." " The more important of the charges against Yasodhara's minister bearing on contemporary conditions have been discussed in another chapter viz., Chap. V. Some of the observations of the spy on the ways of the minister provide interesting reading. The cultural pretensions of the man are severely criticized, his mean tricks exposed, and the secret of his fame explained. A healthy feature is the insistence on learning being independent of wealth procured by royal favour: deva, prasadanadanatmabhavinyo'pi vibhrtayah patimvara iva khat patitasyapi janasya bhavanti, na punarayuh sthitaya ivanupasitagurukulasya yatnavatyo'pi sarakhatyah | yatah nrpakarunayah kamam dravinakanah samcaranti saranesu | na tvabhijatyametat pandityam va nrnam bhavati || deva, tacchunye'pi yat kvacit pumsi nabhasi vidyuta iva vidyavilasitam, taddhanasya ghanasyaiva mahatmyannatmanah | yatah vidyarasavihinapi dhisthali vibhavatapat | vyali kokottarangeyam bhavenmugdhamrgapriya | yadapi kvacit kvacit kalasu payasi patitasya tailabindorivantarvyaptisunyasyapyasyopanyasasahasam, tadapi laksmilaklabhasapasaskhalitamatimrgipracarasya durbharajathara kutharavinirbhinnamanasarasya hatahamkarasya sarasvatipanyapatakavasarasya janasyajaryanna punarbodhaudaryat | yato deva, ghatadasinam hi vadanasaurabham khamitambulodgalana saubhagyabalat, pavanasya hi parimalapesalata prasunavanasamsarganna nisargat, daruno hi dahadarunata brhadbhanubhavanna khabhavat mandalasya hi bhandanakandu- latadhipatisamnidhanavasanna sauyavesat, upalasakalasya hi namasyata devakaranubhavanna prakrtibhavat | , yat punah sevakalokadauratmyam pracikhyapayisuh kimapyanakapadabandhena bhagavatim sarakhatim vidhamati, tatra yo hi svayamevam nikayati sa katham ....vrttam punarasya pinyakapanyanganajanasyevalokantotsargairanekasa'nekapa- nama duratma syaditi paraprataranartham | khandilingisamsargavisargaireva rajapathikrtam | yatah . traidandikahitundikakapalika kausikayatakaih | kirtirjagati prasrta kharapatadiksadhikarasya || | 1 i. e., the worship of the gods by a minister is a carefully planned show of piety, the real motive being to obtain their help in cheating and ruining honest people.

"Sire, riches, although they do not crop up of their own accord, may, like brides seeking a husband, come into the possession even of a man fallen from the sky, as a result of (royal) favour; but learning, like the span of life, never comes to a man, even though accompanied by efforts, unless he attends the lecture-hall of a teacher. Because, 'wealth there may be in plenty in men's homes as a result of a king's favour, but not nobility of birth nor scholarship' (3. 179). When, my lord, there is a show of learning in a man, although he is devoid of these two qualities, it is due not to his own ability but to that of wealth, just as a flash of lightning in the sky is due not to any potency of the sky itself but to the presence of clouds. The field of the intellect, although devoid of the water of learning, may on account of the power of wealth undulate with falsehood, and prove attractive to those deer, the dunces (3. 180). Indeed, this minister (of yours) has the hardihood to hold forth on certain branches of art, although lacking in depth, just as a drop of oil spreads on water without penetrating below the surface; but even that is due not to any great measure of intelligence on his part, but to his association with people who commit the sin of prostituting their learning, being without any self-respect, with all sense of pride destroyed by the axe of chill penury,' and the antelope of their intelligence trapped in the snare of the hope of gaining an infinitesimal quota of wealth. Sire, the fragrance of the mouths of slave girls is due not to any luck but to their taking the remnants of the betel chewed by their masters. The lovely redolence of a breeze is due not to its natural qualities but to its contact with flower gardens. The fierce burning of wood is due not to its natural properties but to the action of fire. A dog is eager to fight not on account of his courage but on account of the presence of his master, and a piece of stone becomes an object of veneration not on account of its natural state but because it is shaped into the likeness of a god.......... Further, the minister annoys the Exalted Goddess of Speech with his wretched verses, his purpose being to proclaim the villainy of his subordinates. This is meant to put outsiders off the scent, who would be led to think, 'How can a man who speaks thus (about the vices of his subordinates) be a villain himself?". ...... Then it is the associates of the many heretics, wandering in the world to its farthest limits, who have oftentimes given wide publicity to his way of life, similar to that of a spendthrift whore. 1 Lit, the axe of a stomach difficult to replenish. 9

His fame has been spread in the world by religious mendicants snake-charmers, Kapalikas, jugglers and consummate thugs ." 3 183. The minister is then accused of various offences such as tyranny, disloyalty, usurpation of power and financial maladministration , all kinds of motives being attributed to him. yastu svasthyavasaresvapi samrddhadeso hi mahisah kinasa ivavasyam karoti kamapi vikrtimiti dhumaketurivanapara- dhamapi janapadam pidayati, prabhutapaksabalo hi bhupalah saila iva kasya bhavati vasa ityanuraktamatirapi prakrtirasamanjasayati, krsa kosako hi dharesah ksapitapaksah paksiva bhavet sukhasadhya iti dhanam nidhanayati, vyasanavyakulito hi rajasuto vyadhita iva na jatu vikurute purascarisviti dvisatah protkarsayati, ekarakso hi ksitipatih karipatiriva na syat paresam visaya iti na kamapyabhijatam sahate, sa kila pranapratikaresu svapateyopakaresu va vidhuresu bhavitopakarteti ko nama sraddadhita | yatah svasthavasthayamapi yo'narthaparampararthamiheta | sa katham vidhuresu punah svamihite cestate'matyah || "Like an outbreak of fire, he oppresses the innocent population even in peaceful times, because a king whose realm is prosperous is sure to do some harm (to his ministers), like the god of death. He creates disaffection among the loyal citizens, because a king with a large following is like a mountain and comes under no one's influence. He squanders public funds, because a king with a depleted treasury can be tackled with ease, like a bird whose wings are cut off. He consolidates your enemies , because a prince overwhelmed by peril is like an invalid, and gives no offence to his counsellors. He never tolerates any highborn person, thinking that a king in the grip of any particular individual is, like an elephant, unlikely to come under the influence of others. Who would believe that such a man would be of any help in the preservation of life or the protection of property in times of danger? Because, how can a minister who strives to do continuous harm even in easy circumstances exert himslf for the good of his master in times of peril?" 3. 184. The minister is also accused of having banished various distinguished men whose presence was vital to the welfare of the state ( Book III, p. 453 ) : tato'sau yadi devasya paramarthato na kupyati, satpurusaparisadiva manasi managapi nabhyasuyati, tat kimiti manisa- paurusabhyamasesasistasaundirasikhamaniyamanamatisamiksam pundarikaksam, sindhurapradhano hi vijayo visamisanamiti tat kimiti samastasamajaitihyagrhyamanahprabhavam bandhujivam, mahakavi samgrahanmahipatinamacandrarkavakasam yasa iti tat kimiti sa bhavatkirti latalalanalapamrtasevakasaram haram, 'yasu santo na tisthanti ta vrthaiva vibhutayah ' iti tat kimiti svabhavadeva devasya praseduso'paranapi vidusah purusanamisannagarantarapatitah kapota iva nirvasya svayamekaisvarye vartate | "If then he really has no illwill towards Your Majesty, and if he, like an assembly of good men, bears not the slightest malice in his heart, why has he monopolized all power by banishing , like a dove flying into a house, such men as Pundarikaksa, whose intellect and insight were as 1 See Chap. XV for the superstition.

the crest-jewel of all cultured and spirited men by virtue of his talents and courage? The triumph of kings depends upon elephants; yet (why did he banish) Bandhujiva whose mental faculties were devoted to the mastery of all branches of elephant-lore? The fame of kings lasts as long as the sun and the moon owing to their patronage of great poets; yet (why did he banish) the poet Hara, an excellent votary of the nectar of sweet utterances on the creeper of your fame? Wealth that does not support the good is of no use: knowing this, why did he, being intolerant, banish yet other learned men, friendly by nature to Your Majesty ?" Good examples of reflective prose are provided by the musings of Yasodhara after the discovery of the misconduct of his consort. Pausing after his momentary resolve to kill her, Yasodhara says (Chap IV, p. 48): ah kimidamaho karmahamanusthatum vyavasitah | na khalu narya iva subhamasubham va karma sahasaivarabhante vinitamatayah, napi vipadi sampadi va krpanaprakrtaya ivasu vikriyam gacchanti mahanubhavah, na calpamedhasamiva mahiyasamupapanna bhavanti kamacarena pravrttayah, na caitadgahanam kimtu pratarmayaiva lajjavanatamastakena sirah pidhaya sthatavyam | socitavyam ca mayaiva pranayinam purah pascattapaduhpratisthanamidamanusthanam | srotavya bhavisyanti mayaiva karnakatutakarah purajanasya dhikkarah | susthu malinikrtam syanmayaivatmiyam mamiya ca kulam | sodhavya mayaiva svaduskrtaniruttaravidhascittasalyasprsah kulavrddhanamabhidhah | ahamevodaharanam bhavisyami durbuddhinam kutumbavighatane | kalusatamesyatyesaivasthane viniyojita khadgalata | strivadhadayamajani tapasviti mrtasyapi me na duryasah prasantimarhati | sokatanke patisyati ca saparadhasavitrimrtiduhkhito yuvarajah | param ca bahnaparadhe hi dehini ksanamatravyathasaranam maranamanugraha iva | yadi punaranaveksanamupasthitasya, asambhasanamasannasya, upeksanam vijnapayatah, avadhiranamasamaih paribhuyamanasya, asabhangakaranamarthayatah, pritivitaranam tadanabhimatanam, asmaranam priyagosthisu, anaveksanam tatparijanasya, apavarya vyaharanam svaprakasesvapyalapesu, anavasaranusaranamasamgabhavesvapi prastavesu kriyeta, syat pratyanitasciramasthane krtasamayah pranayah | "Ah, what have I set myself to do? Certainly the wise never do anything good or bad, like women, on the spur of the moment, nor are the high-spirited quickly perturbed, like the weak-minded, in prosperity or danger, nor do arbitrary acts befit the great as they they do those who are poor in talents. This is by no means hard to comprehend. (If I kill her) it is I who will have to cover my head on the morrow, downcast with shame; it is I who will have to bewail my action, injudicious on account of repentance, in the presence of friends; it is I who will have to hear the reproaches of the citizens, harsh to the ear; it is I who will have tarnished my own family and that of my uncle; it is I who will have to bear the cutting remarks of the elders, without any means of reply on account of my misdeed. I will be cited as an example of how the foolish disrupt their own families. And this sword will be polluted, if applied to an unworthy object. He became a miserable wretch by murdering a woman' - this evil report concerning me will not subside even after my death. And the prince (Yasomati), miserable at the death of his guilty mother, will be sorely afflicted with grief. Besides, death with its momentary

68 68 YASASTILAKA AND INDIAN CULTURE pain is as a favour to one who has committed a grievous offence. On the other hand, it is possible to repudiate long misdirected love if the person so loved is treated with contempt¹ even on isolated occasions; for example, if one does not take any notice of him when present; if one does not talk to him when near; if one ignores him when he makes a statement; if one neglects him when insulted by his inferiors; if one disappoints him when he asks for a favour; if one befriends those who are dis liked by him; if one does not mention him in conversation with friends; if one does not look at his attendants; and if even in self-evident matters (requiring no deliberation) one dismisses him on the pretext of lack of leisure." After recognising that the pageant of life loses its meaning without women, Yasodhara dilates on their villainy and faithless character (p. 61): ima hyanisamanuniyamana grhamarkatamiva vidambayanti purusam, upacarairgrhyamana danadurbharah sa mesa ityadhi- ksipanti, apeksyamanah pasumiva manyante, hathadupabhujyamanah smasanakutamiva pariharanti, serghyamanuyujyamana bhujangaya iva dasanti, gunavadbhayo nimbadivodvijante, sucitriyesu mrtpinda ivabhinivisante, anurajyantya eva bhavanti karanamanartha- paramparayah, hasantya eva salyayantyangani pasyantya eva dahanti deham, alapantya eva skhalanti manasah sthairyam, asajantya eva kurvanti trnadasi laghutaram manusyam, araksyamanah svacchalenaivarabhante duskarmani | na casamasti raksanopayah | "Constantly pampered, they deride men as they would a tame monkey. They are never satisfied with presents, and when treated with marks of esteem, they mock at men as being sheep. When sought after, they look upon men as brutes. When enjoyed against their will, they forsake men like a water-pot used in a cremation ground. Jealously questioned, they bite like serpents. They shun those who are virtuous like the Neem tree (with the bitter leaves), and regard those who act from pure motives as clods of earth. Women become a source of perennial evil even while they profess love, pierce one's limbs even while they laugh, consume one's body even while they cast glances, undermine one's strength of mind even while they talk, and degrade a person even lower than a blade of grass by attaching themselves to him. When guarded, they commit misdeeds by resorting to their own devices, and there is in fact no means of effectively guarding them." The disgruntled husband takes a pessimistic view of youth, wealth and the joys of life, all these being regarded as disturbing influences on the moral life. The observations are enlivened by a large number of illustrative similes (p. 66): yauvanavirbhavah punah kadambariyoga iva param mumuksunamapi navikarya manamsi visramyati | srimadah sarvendriyanam janusandhatvamivapratikaramupaghatakaranam | anangasiddhantah khalopadesa ivanarthabhujangamanamutthapanadandah | kavayah punah pisaca iva visayesu vibhramayanti nisargadajihmanyapi cittani | dindimadhvaniriva vyasanavyalaprabodhanakarah kalanamabhyasah | niyoga- labha ivapatasundarah prasahyonmadayati suviduso'pi purusan pranayijanavilaso hrdayamupanipatya darpayati ca | yacitakamandanamiva 1 Ms. A remarks yadi anavasaranusaranam niradarah kriyeta tada pranayah nirakrtah syat | anavasaranusaranam kimiva anaveksanamityadi kriyeta .

4. YASASTILAKA AS A PROSE ROMANCE chandanuvatam parijanah | tadetesvekamapyalamupahantum praninah, kim punaramisam na samavayah | .... 69 yasyam punarlaksmyamayam mahanagraho lokasya sa daivat karamupagatapi sutakakanikeva na bhavati sthira | khalamaitriva samgacchamanapi janayatyavasyam kamcidvipadam | apamargayavaguriva labdhapi na sakyate parinamayitum | prayatnaparipalitapi kulateva karotyupa- patavabhilasam | anubhuyamanapi madireva mohayatyantahkaranam | grahoparagalekheva gatapyasamtapayanti na vyavatisthate | sahasairupa- sthitapi raksasiva chalayati kevalam mahapurusesu pratistham pratyavasadayitum | durjanesu ksanamatram sakhibhavamupayati | "The advent of youth, like the drinking of wine, never fails to pervert the minds even of those who are bent on salvation. The pride of wealth, like birth-blindness, causes an incurable paralysis of all the senses. Erotic lore, like a villain's counsel, is a magic wand for raising serpents, the evils of life. The poets, like demons, bewilderingly divert the minds of men, although straightforward by nature, to mundane joys. The practice of the arts is like the sound of a drum, awakening the serpents of evil passions. The enjoyment of a beloved woman, charming only at the beginning, like an appointment newly obtained, forcibly intoxicates even very wise men, and taking possession of the heart, fills it with pride. The subservient attendents are like borrowed ornments. Not to speak of the combination of these evils, even one of them is sufficient to destroy sentient beings. The Goddess of wealth, for whom the world has so great a longing, becomes fickle like a particle of mercury even when she comes into one's possession by chance. Like the friendship of villains, she is bound to cause some calamity even when she is one's associate. Like gruel made from the Apamarga plant, she cannot be assimilated even when one has acquired her. Like a lewd woman, she longs for a paramour even when cherished with care. Like wine, she deludes the mind even while she is enjoyed. Like an eclipse, she never fails to cause distress even after she has vanished. Although she appears at the call of bravery, she practises deception, like a demoness, in order to destroy the eminence of the great. For a moment she befriends the villains." The difficulty of controlling the mind is emphasized in Sudatta's reflections in Book I, similes being used as usual to give point to the remarks (p. 111): tatha sakrccalitam ca cetah prasada iva punah duskaramuddhartum, durataramunnatani girisikharaniva sakyante saririnam hrdayani sukhenaivadhastat patayitumarohayitum na punarduhkhenapi | asti ca ' sreyamsi bahuvighnani ' iti vidusam pravadah | srutabhyasasca bisatanturdantinamiva pratyavasyantamatmanamalam na bhavati nivarayitum, tanucchada ivadhiradhisu na jayate calatacittasya tranaya dehadahakaragamah samyamah, bahirutthavasthitah paradarasa iva dvandvaparigatah puman ksanamapi naste prasamkhyanakriyasu | "It is as difficult to steady the mind, once it has gone astray, as it is to restore a building shaken to its foundations. The hearts of men, 1 i. e. fickle, faithless. Borrowed ornaments denote the idea of instability as they are claimed back by their owners. The idea is fully explained in a Buddhist simile which compares the pleasures of sense to borrowed wealth. See Majjhima Nikaya, Potaliya Sutta (LIV):

like extremely high mountain-peaks, can easily be flung to a lower level, but cannot be elevated even with difficulty. And there is a saying of the wise that the good is accompanied by many impediments. The study of the Scriptures cannot check the erring self, just as lotus fibres cannot hold back an elephant. Self-control, physically distressing as it is, cannot protect the unsteady minds of those who are fickle, just as an armour cannot fortify the wavering hearts of cowards. A man surrounded by distractions cannot concentrate even momentarily on meditative efforts, just as mercury placed over the fire does not last even for a moment." A few homely pictures are provided by Somadeva's description of certain misers in Yasastilaka. In the humorous prelude to the spy's report, the latter speaks of a fellow named Kilinjaka described as 'the foremost of misers.' "He is to be counted first among the stingy. He is the exemplar of the penurious, and deserves to be called the chief of the untidy. He is the crest-jewel of the greedy, and his name can be mentioned only at the end of a meal." The spy gives a detailed account of the wretched meal to which he was treated by the miser (Book III, p. 404): ....ardharaddhalavuphalaphali prakaram, isatsvinnakarkarukarkasacchedasaram, avalamaluramulakacakrakopakramam, abhrstacirbhatikabhaksanabhagnabhavakramam, apakvarkagnidamanaringiniphalaviralaviracanam, agasticutamratakapicumandakandalasadanam, anekadivasavasarthitamlakhalakavistaram, ativapakopahata brhati vartakaphalasobhanjanakandasalanakavataram, erandaphalapalandu- mundikadambaram, ucchunodvellita vallakaralakakokundoddamaram, analparajikavarjitavantisomavasanam, The description is of interest not only on account of the names of a large variety of fruits and vegetables but as providing detail of domestic life, and is a contrast to the rather empty rhetoric which sometimes characterizes Kavya prose, including Somadeva's own writing. It reminds one of a similar but less complex account of poor men's fare preserved in an extract from the Greek comedian Alexis, cited by Athenaeus in Deipnosophistae II. 55. Somadeva in Yasastilaka, Book VII (section 32), gives another picture of a notorious miser, the wealthy merchant Sagaradatta, who has rather queer notions of economy and resorts to ingenious devices to put them into practice. He does not, for instance, buy oil for lighting his courtyard, but hangs a mirror from the edge of the roof of his house, and allows the light from his neighbour's house to be reflected in the mirror. He would advise the boys of the household not to waste oil in massaging their bodies before bath, but to have contact with the oil-smeared bodies of the boys of the neighbourhood in a close fight with them. He would instruct his servants to purchase oil and salt and then return both as beihg bad, the particles adhering to the receptacle being sufficient for subsistence! He avoids washing expenses by selling his dirty linen, and never accepts an

invitation to dinner lest he should be required to return the invitation; and his servants see what other people ate in their homes. It will be conceded that we have here a portrait worthy of Theophrastus. Descriptions of female beauty so frequent in Sanskrit literature are rare in Yasastilaka. A well-drawn picture is that of the beautiful daughtersin-law of Queen Celini, followed by the pathetic figure of the wife of Puspadanta, grown ugly and emaciated after twelve years of separation from her husband who had taken the monastic vow.1 The portrait of Maradatta in Book I is chiefly remarkable for the young king's love of dangerous exploits and strange rites; while the cumbrous description of king Yasorgha in Book II may be contrasted with the simple one of Sudatta as king of Kalinga in Book V. The seasonal descriptions in Book I form the background of Sudatta's religious austerities which are briefly outlined. Not much interest attaches to the artificial description of Avanti in Book II and the pleasure garden in Book I. Most of the natural descriptions are of the conventional type and often characterized by artificial conceits and commonplace images. There are, however, others enlivened by striking details illustrating the author's powers of observation. Mention may be made of the animated description, in Book V, of the prosperous dairy-farm of Karahata, full of all kinds of cows, horses, mules, donkeys and sheep, 'a combination, as it were, of the oceans of curds, milk and clarified butter'. A variety of scenes common to life in a dairy-farm in medieval India is vividly described (p. 184): , kvacidunnigalamandalavalakulitabastavarkarakam kvacigopalapota parisvopaduyamanavrddhavrsnikam kvacidvatseksanaksara- tstanadhenudugdhadharadhavyamanadharapitham, kvacit kalaseya kalasarasivisrananapriyamanatithipetam, kvacid vanavinivrttaniciki . nitilanikataniksipyamanadadhidarbhadurvaksataprasavam kvaciddalitadamadasera karbhakabhrantisankitasakrtkarikhuraksudyamanadmanidesapalla- vam,kacittarunatarabhiroddbhurnaghana dughanaghoraghata ghurnyamanaranarabha saksobhasamdhuksitaraktaksakaksam, kacidunmathanathahariyuthayuddhabadhyamana- prahipaksam kvacidvaskayaniksirapratiksyamanagrhagrhavagrahanigrhadevatakulam, kvacidgomithunaparinayotphullapallavakhavasinijanocca- ryamanamangalam kvaciddadhimanthamanthanadhvanivinartyamanabhavatabarhinam, kvacinmaheyidohavyaharaddyamanapayahpanaparapathikaganam, kvacit samdanadamanicyutacapalataratarnakaksodaruditadarakadiyamana jaratiraksavidhanam "Somewhere in the farm the kids are harassed by the unchained young dogs, and elsewhere an old ewe is tormented by the pranks of a cow-boy. At one place the ground is drenched with milk streaming from a cow's udders at the sight of her calf; at another place guests are entertained with gifts of pitchers of buttermilk; and elsewhere curds, blades of kusa and durva grass, unbroken rice and flowers are placed on the forehead of a cow back from the woods. Here the tender leaves in the mangers are crushed by the hooves of 1 For the story see Chap. XVI.

calves frightened by the scamper of the young camels who have broken their chains; there the buffaloes stagger under the merciless blows dealt by the young Abhiras with heavy sticks, and are infuriated by the violent commotion of the fight. At one place the resort of cows with young for the first time is disturbed by the combats of a herd of powerful bulls. At one place the tutelary deities presiding over the threshold of a house are worshipped with the milk of cows with grown up calves; and at another place women with husbands alive, carrying blossoming sprigs, sing auspicious songs at the nuptials of a bull and a cow; while elsewhere the domestic peacocks are made to dance by the sound of the churn-staff in the making of curds. Somewhere in the farm the sound of the milking of cows invites wayfarers eager to partake of milk; while elsewhere an old dame comes to the rescue of a boy weeping at being trampled on by a nimble calf that has broken away from the tether." The elaborate description of the great forest in Book V is interesting chiefly for the vivid portrayal of a variety of wild animals in their natural surroundings (p. 198): 'kvacidupalambapralambastambavilambamanajanako ttrasitaharinaprayanabhara bhitabhallukanikaram kvacidanavara tamrgamarga- marganasramasrantacilataceliko caluscitacurivariviksanaturataraksucaksurdurlaksya na ganimnagapulinam, kvaciddamarikanikayasayakaviddhavrddha- varahavirasavirasitasravatkuranganganagarbhanirbharam, kvacidunmadamahisamandalarabdharanavisanasamghattocchalatsphulingasamgasiryamanagamagrapa- llavabharam, ......... kvacidavicchinnaviharavanaranikaravikiryamananidakrododdinandajacchadacchannambaram .... kvacidghanaghuka- ghoraghutkaraghurnyamanapuranavitapikotara prasutavayasivargam, kvacidbalavadbalalonmulitadrumala kulakalabhapracaram, .......... kvacicci trakakulaghrataprsatakhurakhandyamanakadalipravalantarangam, kvacidananyasamanyodanyanudrutadravadrankujihvava lihyamanamrgatrsnikatarangam kvacitpracandagandakavadanavidaryamanarururudhira duriksavrksanikam, kvacinnih salyasallakasalakajalakilyamanarallakalokalokam "Somewhere in the forest a pack of bears is scared by a herd of deer rushing past, being struck with terror at the sight of the wild oxen loitering among the clumps of spreading creepers... .........At one place the islet of a mountain river looks terrible with the hyenas worried at the sight of the water of the sandy pools being drunk up by the Bhilla boys, exhausted by the constant search for the track of deer. A corner of the forest is covered with the embryos of hinds expelled by the shrill cries of the old boars pierced by the arrows of a band of robbers. At one place the extremities of the thick foliage of trees wither in contact with the sparks shooting up from the the clash of horns in the combats of frenzied buffaloes............... At one place the sky is covered with the feathers of birds flying away from their nests, being dispersed by a crowd of monkeys roaming at will... ......At another place the female crows bring forth their young in the hollows of the old trees shaken by the horrible cries of the compact flocks of screech-owls. In one part of the forest, the movements of the elephant cubs are hampered ........Another by the clusters of trees uprooted by violent gales........

part of the forest is covered with the leaves of the banana plants cut up by the hooves of the bucks attacked by leopards. At one place antelopes, oppressed by an uncommon thirst, run and lap up the ripples of a mirage. At another place the trees are ghastly with the blood of stags pierced by the horn of some fierce rhinoceros, and all the Rallaka deer are transfixed by the spines of the porcupines moving about freely." ed Similar delineation of the wild life of nature is found in the descripion of the Sipra river in Book V (p. 208): webs no var dose fait anyonyapaghanaghanaghattakupitakumbhirabhayabhramyatkakubhakuhutkara mukharam avacataba kotacestitaca kitakamalamulanili- yamanapotadhanam, amburuha kuha ra vihara davahara vighnitavaikhanasakusumonchanavidhanam, udirnadarpadivi ' tumulakalikolahalavalokamuka- mukakalokam, unmattamakarakarasphalanottalalahariko ttalitaravindakandaradravanmakaranda binducandraka vacayacatulacancarikamecakavicika- nikam, uddamodakadvipadasanadasyamanamrnalinisakalasaraprasaram, atucchakacchapacchotamurcchatpathina prsthapithiluthaduddandadindirapinda- sikhanditatanitatinikatakarkaram ' "The waters resound with the cries of the water-fowl hovering about in fear of the alligators enraged at the heavy clash of each other's bodies, and the young fish lie hidden under the lotus beds, scared by the movements of the silent cranes; while the gathering of flowers by anchorites is hampered by the water-snakes prowling inside the lotus beds. The frogs keep quiet on hearing the noise of the fierce fights of ferocious waterserpents; and the ripples are darkened by the bees briskly collecting the spreading honey drops oozing from the inner cavity of the lotus blossoms swayed by the surging waves caused by frenzied crocodiles splashing the water with their claws. The waters are overspread with fragments of lilies chewed by fierce hippopotami; and the contiguous rocks of the mountain slopes are fringed with heavy masses of foam floating on the broad backs of the Pathina fish, excited by the splash made by huge tortoises." Among other descriptions of nature the oncoming darkness is described towards the end of Book III, and Book IV opens with an overwrought picture of sunset and the evening twilight. Elaborate descriptions of the seasons occur in Books I and III, and although the imagery is conventional, there are graphic touches; for example, in the portrayal of the flowers and plants of the rainy season when "the fields are uneven with dense masses of mushrooms; the horizon is pink with blossoms of water-pepper plants; the crevices of mountain rocks are delightfully fragrant with jasmine flowers; ....the hill tops are adorned with Girimallika buds;........ the mountain bowers are gay with Sarja and Arjuna trees; and the leafy petals of the Ketaki flowers glisten, shaped like Cupid's darts." ( Book III ). 1 Ms. A reads divata for divi . A M 2 This is the reading of Ms. A. The printed text reads farfe 10

The prose hymns in Book VIII are an interesting experiment in Kavya prose, and illustrate a Jaina literary genre. They are in the form of elaborate prayers addressed to the Panca-Paramesthins, the five supreme spiritual leaders of the Jaina church, and are in keeping with the character of Yasastilaka as a Jaina religious romance composed in Kavya style. The place of these prose invocations in the devotional scheme outlined by Somadeva has been indicated in a subsequent chapter, and it may here be pointed out that each invocation ends with a verse in the anustup metre. There are eight such groups, five addressed to the Paramesthins (Arhat, Siddha, Acarya, Upadhyaya and Sadhu), and three abstract ones addressed to the Jewels of Right Faith, Kight Knowledge and Right Conduct. For example, ..... • virahitarirajorahah kuhakabhavasya om nikhilabhuvanapativihitaniratisayasaparya paramparasya ' dusparajavanjavibhavajalanimajjajjantujata hastavalambaparamagamasya samavasaranasaro'vatirnajagattrayapundarikakhandamartandamandalasya bhaktibharavimatavistapatrayipala maulimaniprabhabhogana bhovijrmbhamanacarananaksatra nikurumbasya sarakhativaraprasadacintamanerlaksmilata- niketakalpanokahasya kirti potika pravardhanakamadhenoraviciparicaya khalikarakaranabhidhanamatramantraprabhavasya saubhagya saurabhasampadana- parijataprasavastabakasya saurupyotpattimanimakarikaghatanavikatakarasya 'ratnatrayapurah sarasya bhagavato'rhatparamestino'statayimistim karomiti svaha | api ca naroragasurambhojavirocanarucisriyam | arogyaya jinadhisam karomyarcanagocaram || "I perform the eightfold worship of the Exalted Arhat Paramesthin preceded by the Three Jewels. All hail! He is continuously worshipped with intense devotion by the lords of all the worlds...... .He is free from the deception of Deluding, Knowledge- and Conation-obscuring and Obstructive Karmas. He is a sun to the lotus-bed of the universe a pool of water. He is the appearing in his great audience-hall as on a pool of water. mighty support of the creatures submerged in the impassable waters of transmigration. His feet, like stars, shine in the firmament of the expansive radiance of the crown jewels of the lords of the three worlds, devoutly bowing in obeisance. He is as a wishing gem for obtaining the highest favours of of the goddess of learning. He is a Kalpa tree, the support of the creeper Prosperity. He is as the all-giving celestial cow in nourishing the nascent name has the mere utterance of his Fame (of his worshippers). The efficacy of a magic formula in destroying one's chance of going to hell, He is as a bunch of Parijata flowers radiating the fragrance of well-being. He is the imagemaker that creates the bejewelled figure of Beauty's rise. Further, I worship Lord Jina for health. His splendour doth produce 1 Ms. A explains vikata as puttalika . 2 See Chap. X. 3 Ms. A says arirmohah | rajo jnanadarsanavaranadvayam | rahah antarayah |

on men, gods and serpents an effect like that of the rays of the sun on lotus blossoms." om viditaveditavyasya bahyabhyantaracaranakaranatrayavisuddhitripathagapagapravahanirmulitamanojakujakutumbadambarasya amara| mbaracaranaranitambinikadambanada pradurbhutamadanamadamakarandadurdinavinodaravindacandrayamanoditoditatratatratapahasitarvacina cari- tracyutavirincavirocanadivaikhanasarasasya anekasastribhuvanaksobhavidhayibhirdhyanadhaiyavadyuta visvakpratyuhavyuhairananyajanasamanyavrtti- bhirmanogocaraticarairascaryaprabhavabhumibhiranavadharitavidhanaistaistairmulottaragunagramanibhistapahprarambhaih sakalaihika sukha samrajyavarapra- danavahitayatavadhiritavismitopanatavanadevatalaka likulavilupyamana caranasarasijaparagasya nirvanapathanisthitatmano ratnatrayapurah - sarasya bhagavatah sarvasadhuparamesthino'statayimistim karomiti svaha | api ca bodhapagapravahena vidhyatanangavahnayah | vidhyaradhyayah santu sadhyabodhyaya sadhavah || * "I perform the eightfold worship of the Exalted, All-holy Sadhu Paramesthin preceded by the Three Jewels, the Saint who has devoted himself to the path of salvation. All hail! He has comprehended all knowable things, and uprooted the luxuriant grove of passion with the Ganges flow of the purity of mind, body and speech in the external and internal spheres of activity. He has thrown into the shade the religious meditation of inferior and degenerate recluses such as Brahma, Virocana and others, by dint of the multitude of his own ever-recurring vows, which, like the moon, wither up the honey-laden toy-lotus of frenzied passion, originating in the river of beautiful maids among the gods, men and the Vidyadharas. The dust of his lotus feet is wiped off by the bees in the shape of the hair of the sylvan deities, bowing to him in obeisance, who come to confer on him the boon of worldly happiness in its entire range, but are amazed at being ignored by him on account of his diverse austerities, headed by the vows comprising the Mula- and the Uttara-gunas ; (austerities) that perturb the three worlds in diverse ways, and remove all obstacles with the strength of meditation, and are extraordinary in character, and beyond the range of thought, and inscrutable in their working, and productive of miraculous power! Further, may the saints whose feet are to be worshipped, according to the prescribed rule, help us to acquire perfect knowledge! They have extinguished the fire of passion with the current of the river of knowledge." om yat sakalalokalokavalokana pratibandhakandhakaravidhvamsanam, anavadyavidyamandakininidanamedinidharam, asesasattvotsavanandacandrodayam, akhilatratagupti samitilatarama puspa kara samayam, analpaphalapradayitapah kalpadrumaprasavabhumimasma- yopasamasaumanasya vrttidhairyapradhanairanusthiyamanamusanti saddhidhanah paramapadaprapteh prathamamiva sopanam, tasya pancatayatmanah sarvakriyopa- samatisayavasanasya sakalamangalavidhayinah pancaparamesthipurah sarasya bhagavatah samyakcaritraratnasyastatayimistim karomiti svaha api ca dharmayoginarendrasya karmavairijayarjane | sarmakrt sarvasatvanam dharmadhirvrttamasraye || 1 Ms. A says sadhyo bodhya atma yasya tat sadhyabodhyam kevalajnanam tasmai .

o que "I undertake the eightfold worship of the Exalted Jewel of Right Conduct, preceded by the five Paramesthins, and fivefold in character¹ that produces all good, and culminates in the absolute cessation of all forms of activity. All hail! It destroys the darkness that obstructs the view of the entire universe. It is the Himalaya of unblemished knowledge; the moonrise of festive joy to all living creatures; and the springtime of the creepery grove of all the vows and modes of self-restraint and vigilance. It is the nursery of the Kalpa trees of religious austerities that vouchsafe mighty results, and it is practised by those who possess humility, mental calm, a kindly disposition and fortitude. The wise call this Jewel of Right Conduct the first step to the attainment of the supreme goal. Further, intent on Dharma, and for the purpose of vanquishing my enemy, Karma, I resort to the way of life of the Dharmayogin, the best of men. It doth bring happiness to all living creatures." of , zul alt bajo Somadeva's style is enlivened by the occasional use of popular maxims occurring chiefly in his prose and sometimes also in verses. For example, fa (Book IV): Enquiring as to an auspicious date for shaving one's head after one has already finished it. As pointed out by Jacob, Laukikanyayanjali, Part II, this proverb occurs in the Nyayamanjari in the form munditasironaksatranvesanam . The proverb 'sreyamsi bahuvighnani ' (Book I) occurs at the beginning of a popular verse cited, for example, by Haribhadra at the commencement of his own commentary on his Anekantajayapataka: sreyamsi bahuvighnani bhavanti mahatamapi | asreyasi pravrttanam kvapi yanti vinayakah || 'itastatamito vyaghrah kenastu pranino gatih ' (Book IV): On one side a precipice, on the other a tiger; how can a living creature pass? To be between the devil and the deep sea. This and two other similar sayings are cited in Nalacampi, Book V: 'ito vyaghra itastati, ito davagnirito dasyavah, ito dustadandasuka ito'pyandhakupah ' iti nyayat | . 'narakantam rajyam, bandhananto niyogah, maranantah strisu visvasah, vipadanta khalesu maitri ' ( Books VII & V): Sovereignty leads to hell, employment to captivity, trust in women to death, and friendship with villains to danger. '::' occurs in a verse of 'gatodake kah khalu setubandhah ' Book IV. 'sarvatra he putra na sadulani ' Ibid. ' ' ko nama dhimamlavanamburaserupayanartham lavanam nayeta ' Ibid. ISTE 1 For the fivefold Caritra (conduct) see Chap. XI (section on Caritrabhakti). 2 Effective control over mind, body, and speech (ga). Tattvarthadhigama-sutra 9.4. 3 iryasamiti (Proper care in walking), (Proper care in eating), 3 3 A (Proper care in excretion). 4 See Chap, XII. bhasasamiti (Proper care in speaking ), esanasamiti (Proper care in lifting and depositing), and Ibid.9.5. wej fe from al

. 4. YASASTILAKA AS A PROSE ROMANCE What wise man will carry salt for presenting it to the saltsea? 77 i fat- :, Book VII, section 32. The sense, as far as can be judged from the context, seems to be that kings are as liberal as Indra in rewarding merit and as strict as Yama in punishing crime. 'rajaparigrhitam trnamapi kancanibhavati ' Ibid. Even a blade of grass belonging to the king becomes as valuable as gold. Book IV, Book II, verse 153: The maxim of the blind man and the quail'. : : Book III, verse 73, is a variation of the wellknown maxim arke cenmadhu vindeta kimartha parvatam vrajet discussed by Jacob (op. cit.), Part I. The following maxims bearing on the character of women occur in Book IV: striyah khalesu rajyante dasahastipakadisu ' iti, 'apatre ramate nari ' iti vacanamasti | ata evosanti nitivedinah- 'tairasvo'pi pumyogah striyo dusayati, kim punarna manusah ' ।. fata:' . The last of these maxims is also cited by Somadeva in Nitivakyamrta: ai atci fa ya ear wolge BBW kuryustarasco'pi pumyogah | . gorgaila, jqola bus bod a'boedend red Somadeva has an eye for the grotesque, as exemplified in his description of the elephant driver in Book IV and the king's spy in Book III. His power to depict the strange and the terrible is illustrated not only in his remarkable picture of Candamari and the Mahabhairava temple in Book I but in the description of the scenes of horror conjured up by a Vidyadhara to disturb the meditation of the sage Manmathamathana, in Book V, and the similar scenes created by two gods to test the steadfastness of Jinadatta and Padmaratha in their austerities, in the first story of Book VI. Disease and disgusting conditions are delineated in the story of Auddayana in Book VI (section 9); while Amrtamati, stricken with leprosy after her crime, is introduced in a verse of Book V. Curious examples of abusive language are found in the story of the Vidyadhara mentioned above, who is discovered in the act of molesting the sage Manmathamathana by the king of the Vidyadharas, and addressed by the latter thus:sed bod beob are kadacaracara parakaduratman khalapurobhagin vidyadharadhama khecarakheta vihayogamayapya viyancarakhela hetha narakanivasa papacara bahukumatibhrtacitta gunamataha nihina gandharvalokapasada mataripurusa Similarly, in the story of Sribhuti in Book VII (section 27), the dishonest priest is rebuked by the king in opprobrious language. The incorporation of the religious and moral tales in Books VI and VII gives the author an opportunity of presenting scenes not usually found in Sanskrit prose romances. ode PE PRISE SERION DE PRIPIFIC FO 1 The translation of the verse in question in chapter XI follows Srutasagara's explanation of the maxim. Vardhamana, on Ganaratnamahodadhi III. 195, explains it differently. II foo See Jacob (p. cit.), Part I.

Frequent and sometimes felicitous use of similes is made by Somadeva in his narrative and descriptive prose. Vajrakumara was, for instance, adorned by his youth, 'just as a desert path is adorned by a shady tree ; just as a shady tree is adorned by a pool of water; just as a pool of water is adorned by a lotus-bed; just as a lotus-bed is adorned by a flock of swans; just as a flock of swans is adorned by the company of beautiful women; and just as the company of beautiful women is adorned by the graceful play of love'." After the discovery of Amrtamati's guilt, Yasodhara's heart burnt like a tree enveloped by fire; he was furious like the ocean overflowing its shores; he changed countenance like the moon attacked by Rahu , and trembled like creatures at the approach of death; his lips quivered like a leaf that is being cut to pieces; he frowned like Siva intent on burning the Three Cities; and his bosom was aglow like a heated cauldron. The guilty woman , after her transgression, crept back to her husband's bed and slept, clinging to his bosom, like as a female rogue elephant enters a grove of trees , just as a sheet of lightning plunges into a rain-cloud, just as a serpent enters a mountain cave, just as the messenger of death enters the world, just as a crocodile This may be enters the ocean, or a female goblin the dense woods.³ This contrasted with another series of similes, in which the conjugal harmony of Candramati and her consort Yasorgha is likened to the relationship existing between wise policy and a kingdom, forbearance and religious Austerities, modesty and learning, fame and life, the Flag of triumph and the god of love, mango blossoms and springtime, the Kalpa creeper and a tree of heaven, and a series of beneficial happenings and a sacred day of religious piety. A long series of similes occurs also in Yasodhara's reflections on women as an indispensable factor in the joys of life. Without women, a kingdom is like a forest, ornaments are like the decoration of a dead body, beauty paint is like smearing of clay, adornment of the body is like shampooing a man who is asleep, the flurry of fly-whisks and parasols is like the worship of evil spirits, the practice of the arts is like a device for wasting time, the study of poetry is like an attempt to remove the irritation of the mouth, deliberations in the council chamber are like possession by evil spirits, public audience is like entering a prison, music is like a loud sermon on the futility of life, the sound of drums is like a trumpet proclaiming the banishment of worldly happiness, mansions are 1 'marumarga iva chayapadapena, chayapadapa iva jalasayena, jalasaya iva kamalakarena ' etc. Book VI, section 16. 2 ' asusuksanikaksikrtah ksitiruha iva dahyamanantardehah, cyutamaryadamudrah samudra ivanivaryakopaprasarah ' etc. Book IV. 3 'kujanikuamiva vyali, parjanyotsangamiva saudamini, kutkilakandaramiva bhujangi ' etc. Ibid. 4 'nitiriva rajyasya, ksantiriva tapasah, anutsekasthitiriva srutasya, kirtiriva jivitavyasya, vijayavaijayantiva manasijasya ' etc Book II.

like mountain caves, pleasure gardens are like charnel-fields, protecting one's subjects is like wage-earning, conciliation of the citizens is like the rounds of a city barber, execution of the six-fold policy is like the crossing of a dried up river, and the effort to acquire wealth is like dancing in the dark." Yasodhara's disgust for the world and decision to renounce the world is brought into harmony with the morning scenery in a series of appropriate similes. "The east cleared up like my own decision. The stars vanished like my desire for sovereignty. The lunar orb grew dim like my passion of love. The day lotus beds blossomed forth like the disgust of my heart. The darkness of the night disappeared like my desire for worldly happiness. The glow of the early dawn melted away like the snare of my delusion." Rather bold and exaggerated, similes are used to praise the Sipra river in Book V. Its waters are bright as a stream of nectar and beautiful as the oozings from moonstones, and delight the world like the Supreme Light. Abstract similes are sometimes used to describe concrete objects, e. g., in the description of the great forest in Book V: it is impenetrable like the heart of a wicked man, dreadful like the hour of universal destruction, deep like the science of numbers, intricate like the character of a woman, infested with mischievous thorns like a period of anarchy, harmful like a villain's counsel, and inaccessible like the heart of a prince³. Some of the similes are marred by word-play, and a typical example is the comparison of the forest just mentioned to Raghu's family, simply because both happen to contain 'Magadhi', which, applied to the forest, means a pippali creeper; and applied to the family in question means Sudaksina, the consort of Dilipa. Simpler and more tolerable is the comparison of king Yasorgha, also based on verbal similarity, to the autumn, the spring and the other seasons. Similes based on paronomasia are in fact a common feature of the Kavya style, and it is perhaps significant that Somadeva's romance opens with a long series of similes of this type (slistopama). They are used also in the description of the great tree in the valley of the Suvela mountain in Book V." 1 ' vina hi vilasinijanenaranyamivedam rajyam, mrtakamandanamivabharanam, pankopadeha iva vilepanam, suptasamvahanamiva sarirasamskarah, prakaranamiva camaratapatradambarah, kalaharanopaya iva kalanamabhyasah, tundakanduvinayanamiva kavyadhyayanam ' etc. Book IV. 2 'matkaryaparicchedeneva sphutitam purvadigbhagena, madrajyabhilaseneva viralibhutam tarakanikarena, manmanasijavilaseneva vicchayi- tamindubimbena, madvairagyamanaseva vikasitamaravindavrndena ' etc. Book IV. 3 'durjanahrdayamiva duspravesam, pralayakalamiva bhayanakam, nigadyagamamiva gahanavasanam, svabhavavisamam ' etc. 4 'raghuvamsamiva magadhiprabhavam '. 5 ' etc. Book II. 6 ' yatra mahanrpataya iva gomandalavantah, cakravartisriya iva mahisisamakulah, bharataprayoga iva sagandharvah % 7 kakutsthakathavatara iva kapikulavilupyamanapalasaprasarah, satramandapa iva dvijarajavirajitah ..... padaprabandhavaruddhavasudhah ' etc. vameksanacaritamiva gramah | " chandah prastara iva

'oro rent Other examples of word-play are not very numerous considering the bulk of the romance. The device is aptly used in the satirical description of the wicked minister in Book III. The spy says, for instance, that the minister is indeed the vardhana or 'promoter' of the prosperity of the kingdom, but the word means also 'cutter', 'destroyer'. Similarly, he is the cause of vibhuti 'glory', but the word means also 'ashes'; and he is also the maker of a series of mangalas, which means both 'happy events' and 'potsherds'. There is likewise a long series of compounds in Book II, which describes in identical language the condition of kings, both when they are favoured by Yasorgha and when they incur his displeasure. When, for instance, the great king is displeased with them, their let is tirthopasana, i. e. deprived of their kingdoms, they pass their days in sacred places for the practice of religion; but when Yasorgha is favourable to them, they have tirthopasana of another kind, i. e. enjoy the loyalty of the various components of the state in full sovereignty of the realm'. Similarly, another series of compounds describes simultaneously a pleasure garden and a crowd of beautiful women in a description of the summer in Book III. Virodhabhasas and Parisamkhyas, based on word-play, are also met with, but their number is not large. The description of the royal palace towards the end of Book II contains some highly artificial examples of Virodhabhasa,mia to emoz brs Jant The most typical of the characteristics of the later Kavya style is, idbayaM however, exhibited by the use of Utpreksas which are frequently employed in our work. A series of Utpreksas is used, for example, in Book I, to describe a hill, which is fancied as the bosom of Dame Earth, as the play-ball of some sylvan deity, as a sweetmeat ball given to the boyish Regions of the sky by their mothers, as the hump of the Earth Bull, as a mound barring the entrance to the nether regions, and as the supporting roost of the Sky Birds! Utpreksas are generally used to give greater perspicuity to an image and make it more striking and graphic, but very often the effect produced is rather bizarre and grotesque, although there are numerous exceptions. Those employed, for instance, to describe Candamari are quite in keeping with the dread character of the goddess, who is fancied as the younger sister of Yama, as the mother of Mahakala.Siva, as the messenger of the god of death, as the companion of the Kalagni form of Siva associated with the hour of universal 1 'deva, devasyayameva rajyalaksmivallivardhanah | deva, devasyayameva mangalaparamparasampadanah | deva, devasyayameva samaresu jayavibhutikaranam | . prathitatirthopasanavirbhavadascaryaisvaryah svasya rosatosayoh samatamaninyire bhumibhujah | ' 3 'svanabhoga iva mahimahilayah, kridakanduka iva vanadevatayah, matrmodaka iva digbalakalokasya ' etc.

destruction, as the stewardess of the kitchen of the awful Mothers³, as the nurse of the monsters, as the ground where the kinsmen of the god of death worship the Manes, and as the Night of destruction of all living creatures.* Not so successful is the attempt to reproduce the nasty spectacle of a serpent half buried in an anthill. The reptile is fancied as the intestines of the Earth Antelope, as the tail of the Earth Lioness, as the root of the Earth Creeper, as the stalk of the Earth Lily, and as the lock of hair of the Earth figured as a female monster.³ The constant desire to add new images tends to make Utpreksas farfetched and artificial, and sometimes a good image is spoilt by juxtaposition with others less effective. As is to be expected, Utpreksas occur mostly in descriptions; and some characteristic examples are provided by the natural descriptions in our romance. The Sipra river is, for example, fancied as a girdle of moonstones worn by the city of Ujjayini like a graceful lady, as the pleasure tank of the mistresses of the king of Malava, as a festive banner flying over the nether regions, as a nuptial garland for the wayside mountains, as a pearlstring worn by the Earth goddess, as a banner proclaiming the fame of the mountain from which the river rises, and as an irrigation canal for the gems in the ocean. Similarly, in the rainy season the sky seems to be a shower-bath for the earth long scorched by heat; the mountains with the waters of the cascades streaming down their sides appear to have white banners covering their slopes; and the lakes, full to the brim, seem to be ceremonial vessels of water, a parental offering to the Summer dead and gone!³ Another series of Utpreksas occurs in the description of the temples of Rajapura in Book I. The tall, white edifices are fancied as clusters of flowers of the Sky tree, as white lights of the firmament, as masses of lotus blossoms adorning the crest of the Sky Goddess, as places for the acquisition of vast 1 The seven Matrs are mentioned in the following verse quoted by Srutasagara: tathendrani varahi bhairavi tatha | camunda karnamoti ca carca syuh sapta matarah || . For other definitions, and the number of the Mothers, which is sometimes given as nine, see the English trans. of Naisadhacarita, Vocab. under f. 2 ' ya ca laghiyasi bhaginiva yamasya, jananiva mahakalasya, dutikeva krtantasya, sahacariva kalagnirudrasya, mahanasikiva matrmandalasya ' etc. 3 'puri tatpratanamiva medinikuradhikayah, langalamiva mahisimhikayah ' etc. Book V. 4. 'indumanimekhaletra padmavativilasinyah, jalakelidirghikeva malavavanipalavilasininam, nityotsavapatakeva bhujangamalokasya, varanamaleva margamahidharanam ' etc. Ibid. 5 'cirataratapa samtapaduh sthitayah ksiteryantradharagaralilamiva vibhrati gaganamandale ......... ... nidaghanivapajalasaravesviva nirbharambhahsambhrtesu sarahsu ' Book III. 11

religious merit by the pious of the three worlds, as expanses of the foam of the atmospheric ocean, as gleams of the loud laugh of Siva incarnate as the sky, as crystal pleasure hills of the planetary world, and as elephant cubs of the Sky Forest belonging to the (white) Airavata family.' Accumulations of Rupakas are occasionally met with, for example, in the description of Maradatta as the lover of women of different nationalities . The lengthy series of epithets, mostly Rupakas, applied to Yasodhara in the letter despatched to a rival,³ illustrates a current practice in royal correspondence and inscriptional records of grants and endowments . Some of the epithets are as follows: "The Sunrise of prowess ; Brahman himself in wisdom; an ocean of discernment; a swan participating in the joyful sports of the goddess of learning; the beloved consort of poetic speech; a Vidyadhara in the game of ball-throwing; an Indra in playing with rutting elephants; an Aruna in chariot-driving ; a Garuda in fighting on foot; a Gandharva king in singing; a Brhaspati in the science of instrumental music; a Bharata in the art of dancing;......... ........ & Parasurama in self-sacrifice; an axe in the jungle of hostilities; a lion to the 'fawn' of Kalinga; a blaze to the 'bamboo clump' of Asmaka; a fire to the 'moth' of the Saka country; a flame consuming the king of Krathakaisika; the crest-jewel of the Ksatriyas of Ahicchatra; Deathknell to the insubordination of the king of Pancala; a thunderbolt to the royal dynasty of Kerala; lightning-fire to the Yavana Tree; the subject of pleasant disputes among the beautiful women of Cedi; the luxury mirror of the women of Magadha; a tender leaf on the plump bosoms of the ladies of Kanci; a love-god to the youthful Ratis of Mahismati; the beauty-paint of the ruddy lips of the fair women of Kausambi; the ear-ornament of the women of Dasarna; the passionate lover of the courtesans of Pataliputra; a bee enjoying the graceful gestures of the beautiful women of Valabhi; the perfumed ornamental dot on the foreheads of the women of Ayodhya." A reference to the original will show that most of these epithets are used with an eye to verbal effect, to which Kavya poets paid considerable attention. 1 'praphullastava kairivantariksavrksasya, sretadipasrstibhiriva rodah kotarasya ' etc. 2 'andhrinamalakavallarivijrmbhanajaladharah, colisu bhrulatanartanamalayanilah, keralinam nayanadirghikakelikalahamsah, simhalisu mukhakamalamakarandapanamadhukarah, karnatinam kucakalasavilasapallavah , saurastrisu valivahinivinodakuarah, kambojinam nabhivalabhigarbhasambhogabhujangah, pallavisu nitambasthali khelanakurangah , kalininam calanakisalayotsava puspakarah | '. 3 See chap. V. 4 'Fawn', 'Bamboo clump' and 'Moth' are contemptuous references to the kings of the respective countries. 5 i. e. the Yavana king.

4, YASASTILAKA AS A PROSE ROMANCE 83 out The Rupakas used are not, all of them, equally successful. The courtesan whose dead body forms the subject of the verse description in Book I was 'the pleasure resort of the apish minds of all who are henchmen of the god of love'. The nights of the rainy season are 'the female buffaloes who nourish the child minds of the women going to meet their lovers'. A young man who took the help of a nurse in his love affairs is described as having made her a field for the growth of the woodland of his project. A certain sage is called 'an elephant engaged in water-sports in the river of learning. A particularly bad example is the description of another sage as 'an enclosure for the capture of the elephant herd of religious merit'." Neglect of proportion is a common characteristic of later Kavya style, and overelaboration of details often leads to the use of artificial conceits and hyperboles. Somadeva, for instance, devotes no less than twenty elaborate and mostly far-fetched epithets to Maradatta's sword (Book I, p. 161), and an almost equal number is applied to the dust raised by Yasodhara's troops (Book II, p. 387). The particles of dust are incidentally likened in an elaborate fashion to lovers enjoying the company of their beloved, because they enshroud and cling to the various limbs of the women accompanying the procession. The height of the temples of Rajapura is conveyed by saying that 'the showers of water streaming from the conduits made of moonstones, emitting moisture in contact with the rays of the moon, drench the bodies of the nymphs of heaven, withered by the fire of separation from their lovers'." Sometimes a conceit employed is exaggerated to the extent of producing something like a comic effect. In the description of the great hospitable tree in Book V, for example, the tree is fancied as mockingly addressing other trees in the forest on the subject of their being barren and useless for wayfarers.³ 1 ' cetobhavanucaramanavamanomarkatakridavanaviharavasa tih '. 2 'abhisarikajanamano'patyaposanagarvaryah sarvaryah '. 3 6 4 'sarasvatisarijjalakelikunjarah ' Book V. Book VII, section 31. 5 'graf:' Book VI, section 19. 6 ' tatah sainyasimantinicaranapranipatapranayimanasapranita prasrtasamvahanavinodakarmanah krta nitamba sthalikhelakhedah samjanitana- ...' samacarita simantapranta cumbanah sutrita suratasamagamah priyatama iva 7 6 bhidarakuhara viharanah balasamcarana renavah | ', amrtakaratapasparsadravaccandrakantamayapranalocchalajjalajalaka sarasicyamanaviyadvihariniviraha vaisvanarakarmamarmara sarirayastibhih ". 8 yascanavaratamakhilajanopasevyamanasarvasvah pavanavasavikasadharena pallavadharenopahasativa prativesitarun | 'asmin duhsamcare kantare daivadavapyamanasamagamanasyarthijanasyavidhaya kamapyupakaramare khadira, kim tavantahsarataya | sarala, vrthedam saralatvam ...putika, arthijanasabhangaya margavasthitih | '

One of the topics which makes later Sanskrit writers throw off all restraint is fame, usually the fame of kings. Apart from poetical descriptions of royal fame, Somadeva gives an elaborate picture of the fame of the sage Sudatta (Book I), which illustrates how Kavya poets seek novelty in the treatment of conventional themes by introducing fanciful images and conceits. The description in question may be summarised thus. "The universe having been pervaded by Sudatta's fame, white as the foam of milk, Brahman is anxious lest the white things created by him should be merged in the general whiteness and lost to view. So he devises signs of recognition, and puts the submarine fire in the Ocean of Milk, masses of matted hair on Siva's head, a dark spot in the form of a deer in the moon, protuberances on the heads of Airavata and other divine elephants, mineral peaks on the Himalayas, Tamala trees on the slopes of the Kailasa mountain, the dark waters of the Yamuna in the course of the Ganges, and yellow filaments in white lotus blossoms; while he prescribes for the Pancajanya conch contact with the dark hands of Krsna. Sudatta's fame is also represented as a maiden in her nuptial attire, wandering in the universe and rejecting various suitors for her hand on different grounds. She tells Brahman, for instance, that he is too old to accompany her in her travels; tells Agni, the god of fire, that he is hardly fit for marriage, suffering as he does from acute jaundice; and rejects Varuna, the lord of the ocean, because he is disabled by dropsy and hence debarred from the gaieties of love. Vayu, the wind-god, is too fickle for her, and she tells Kubera, the god of wealth, that a confirmed drunkard like him' is not fit to converse with a maiden like her. Siva who lives near funeral pyres is, of course, ruled out; and she warns the Moon that his life is in danger on account of his incurable consumption, and tells Visnu that, being a baldpate with a scalp resembling an iron cauldron turned upside down, he is not worthy of her kisses. Unable to accept any one of them, Maiden Fame continues to wander without abiding anywhere, like a doe deluded by a mirage, like the mind of a king who has lost his throne, like the intellect of a sage who has attained the inner vision." There is no doubt that this description of fame shows considerable ingenuity, but the reckless elaboration of a favourite theme all but makes it verge on the comic.3 1 anavaratamadhupanaparicyutamatiprakasa videsa, na gocarascaturoktisudharasasvadavisphuritasravananjaliputayah sahala gosthi • nam ' iti nakulabara pitaram | 2 ' avatana kalayasatalikakrtikhala timastakadesa hrsikesa, na samipamadayakacagrahagrahilavigrahayah kutilakuntalavilavilocana • 'cumbananam ' iti mukundam | 3 Certain other gods are also mentioned, including a vulgar reference to Indra.

An interesting example of Kaku-Vakrokti is found in Amrtamati's fraudulent message to Yasodhara, in which she begs to be allowed to accompany the king into wilderness after his proposed renunciation of the world. Yasodhara, while listening to the message, interjects sarcastic remarks which appear to corroborate her statements, but really give them a different interpretation reflecting on her character. Portions of the message may be reproduced here, Yasodhara's remarks being put within brackets. Amrtamati says: 'I will accompany Your Majesty, just as the tide accompanies the ocean (That is why you are fickle); just as the image of the moon accompanies the sky (That is why you have a black spot); just as the shade accompanies a tree (That is why you are enjoyed by others); just as the track accompanies a chariot (That is why you are 'full of dust'); just as the flame accompanies a lamp (That is why you emit 'smoke'); just as sylvan beauty accompanies the spring (That is why you are full of Cupid's lore); just as the Ganges is the companion of the Himalayas (That is why you seek a lower level)'.5 Instances of Yamakas are occasionally found. A device used more than once is the Srnkhalayamaka which consists in the continuous repetition of the last syllables of a series of compounds at the beginning of each succeeding compound. For example, yah khalvanekavikirakulakamini nisita sikhollekhanakhamukhavilikhyamanasakhabhujasikharah, sikharasikhadambarita ... kupalaparyantah, kupalaparyanta ..... pallavaputapatalah, pallavaputapatalantaralapathikasarthah, sahacarinicayah, sahacarinicaya .... chayacchannataladesah, chayacchannataladesa pathikasartha .. As pointed out by Jacobi, the Srnkhalayamaka is used by Siddharsi in Upamitibhavaprapanca katha, p. 752. Haribhadra too has used this device in verses in his Samaraiccakaha,Ⓡ The mixture of prose and verse is a salient feature of Yasastilaka which is one of the two earliest extant Campus, the first being Trivikrama's Nalacampu written during the reign of the Rastrakuta Emperor Indra 1 i. e. a blot on her character. 2 'a lewd woman'. 3 i. e. disgrace. 4 i. e. a paramour of lower rank. 5 'devasyaham sahacari ata evanyopabhogyasi, ' jalanidherveleva ata eva capalasi, nabhasah sasipratimeva ata eva sakalankasi, vitapinaschayeva ....rathasya margabhumiriva ata eva pamsulasi | pradipasya sikheva ata eva malinodgarasi, vasantasya vanalaksmiriva ata eva manmathakathasanathasi 6 See B. I. ed., pp. 79, 423-4, 449, etc. himagirergangeva ata eva nicanugatasi ..........

III in the first quarter of the tenth century. It will be out of place to trace here the growth of Sanskrit narrative composition in mixed prose and verse, the origins of which go back to Vedic literature as well as Buddhist writings in Pali and Sanskrit. There is, however, no doubt that this form of composition became popular in the Deccan in the tenth century in Sanskrit as well as Kanarese literature. Apart from the romances of Trivikrama and Somadeva, the Kudlur grant of the Ganga king Marasimha, elaborately composed in Sanskrit prose and verse, and containing a detailed account of the Ganga dynasty, was issued in 963 A. D. about five years after the composition of Somadeva's Yasastilaka As regards Kanarese literature, Pampa wrote his famous works Adipurana and Pampa Bharata in mixed prose and verse in 941 A. D., and the campi style continued to be popular in that literature for a long period after. Among notable later examples of the mixed style may be mentioned Nagacandra's Pampa Ramayana (circa 1105 A. D.) and Nemicandra's Lilavati (circa 1170 A. D.), 'the earliest known specimen of the Novel , or genuine work of fiction, of the Kanarese language'. Somadeva wrote his Yasastilaka less than two decades after the composition of Pampa's works; and being a native of Karnataka, he may have been influenced by the prevailing Kanarese literary style of his time. As we have already pointed out, Pampa was court-poet of Arikesarin II who reigned at Puligere (Lakshmesvar, Dharwar District), while Somadeva wrote at Gangadhara during the reign of one of his successors. Another noteworthy point is that most of the Kanarese writers of the tenth century and after were Jainas, and it is highly probable that they as well as Somadeva were influenced by the example of the great Jaina Prakrit romances in mixed prose and verse, e. g., the Samaraiccakaha of Haribhadra and the Kuvalayamala of Uddyotana composed in the eighth century. The extensive allegorical novel Upamitibhavaprapanca katha of Siddharsi composed in prose and verse in 906 A. D. is an early example of a Jaina romance written in Sanskrit under similar influences, though not in Kavya style. Comprehensive Jaina narrative works in Prakrit using prose and verse indiscriminately continued to be written till long after the eighth century, e. g., Gunacandra's Mahaviracarita (1082 A. D.), Somaprabha's Kumarapalapratibodha (1184 1 See Rice: Kanarese Literature. 2 Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department for 1921. 3 Rice (op. cit.), p. 43. 4 For Kuvalayamala see Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. II, p. 77 5 Annals of the Bhandarkar O. R. Institute, Vol. XVI, p.37.

A. D.) etc. While Somadeva's Yasastilaka, like Trivikrama's Nalacampu, is essentially a work written in Sanskrit Kavya style, its Jaina characterisitics and the probable influence exercised by the Jaina Prakrit romances on its style and composition cannot entirely be ignored. Dialogues in prose and verse add to the interest of Somadeva's work. The controversial dialogue in Book IV has been dealt with elsewhere, and we may refer to the story of Padma in Book VII, section 31, which is practically in the form of dialogues linked together by brief narrative passages. The story contains two main dialogues cast in a dramatic form which could be easily adapted to the stage. That between the bawd and Padma is reproduced below : ekada muda tam pusyakantamuddisya slokamudaharsit | 60 strisu dhanyatra gangaiva parabhogopagapi ya | manimaleva sollasam dhriyate murdhni sambhuna || bhattini (svagatam ) - itvarijanacaranaharmyanirmanaya prathamasutrapata ivayam vakyopodghatah | ...... (prakasam ) arye, kimasya subhasitasya aidamparyam | dhatri - paramasaubhagyabhagini bhattini janasi evasya subhasitasya kaimparyam, yadi na vajraghatitahrdayasi | bhattini - (svagatam ) satyam vajraghatitahrdayaham, yadi bhavatprayuktopaghataghunajarjaritakaya na bhavisyami | ( prakasam ) ayem, hrdaye'bhinivistamartham srotumicchami | dhatri - vatse, kathayami | kim tu cittam dvayoh purata eva nivedaniyam jnanabhimanadhanadhanyadhiya narena | yah prarthitam na rahayatyabhiyujyamano yo va bhavesjhanu jano manaso'nukulah || bhattini - (svagatam ) aho nabhahprakrtimapiyam pakkairupaleptumicchati| (prakasam ) arye, ubhayatrapi samarthaham na caitanmadupajna bhavadupakramam va | dhatri - (svagatam ) anuguneyam khalu karyaparinatih (prakasam ) ata eva bhadre, vadanti puranavidah- vidhurguroh kalatrena gotamasyamaresvarah | samtanoscapi duscarma samasta pura kila || bhattini arye, evameva | yatah strinam vapurbandhubhirabhisaksikam paratra vikritamidam na manasam | sa eva tasyadhipatirmatah krti visrambhagarbha nanu yatra nirvrtih || dhatri- putri, tarhi sruyatam | tvam kilaikada kasyacit kusumakimsarunirvisesavapusah .. prasadaparisaraviharini viksanapathanusarini sati kaumudiva hrdayacandrakantanandasyandasampadini abhuh | tatprabhrti nanu tasya madanasundarasya yunah ' prativasaram karyavatarah, smararadhanapranitapranidhanasyevendriyesu sannata, pranesu cadyasvinapatha katha | api ca anavaratajalardrandolanasyandamanderati sarasammrnalikandalaiscandanaryaih | amrtarucimaricipraudhitayam nisayam priyasakhi sutaraste kimcidatmapravodhah ||

bhattini - ayem, kimityadyapi gopapyate | dhatri - (karnajahamanusrtya ) evamevam | bhattini - ko dosah | dhatri - kada | bhattini - yada tubhyam rocate | The above dialogue is of interest as presenting a lifelike picture of a procuress attempting to seduce a respectable married woman at the instance of a young man of high social standing. There is some resemblance between the Sanskrit dialogue and the first Mime of the Mimiambi of the Greek poet Herodas, a collection of Mimes or dramatic dialogues of a literary character, composed about the third century B. c. In the Mime in question the bawd Gyllis visits Metriche, a well-to-do young lady, whose husband Mandris has been away in Egypt for nearly a year, and tries to persuade her to accept a wealthy young man who has vehemently fallen in love with her, and employed the old woman as a go-between. Metriche politely but firmly rejects her proposal and dismisses her with a cheering cup of wine. In both the versions the bawd is an old woman, the husband is or expected to be away, and the passion of the admirer is eloquently described, but the mission ends in failure owing to the loyalty of the young wife. There are, however, important points of difference. The Sanskrit dialogue forms part of a moral and religious tale illustrating the evil consequences of unlawful love, while the Mime is a faithful representation of the seamy side of contemporary life. Further, the sequel is different in the Indian tale, as Padma, the chaste wife of the priest, instead of dismissing the bawd in a friendly spirit, like Metriche, pretends to accept her proposal, and hatches a plot to trap the young libertine. The Mime is no doubt by far the more realistic in tone and expression; but the treatment, as dramatic dialogue, is no less vivid in the Sanskrit story. Obscure allusions occur in both the Sanskrit dialogue and the Greek Mime. Somadeva employs the ornate style of the Sanskrit drama in prose and verse; while Herodas uses only verse, but in an artificial dialect. The dramatic qualities of the dialogues in the story of Padma are also present to a lesser extent in the dialogue between Yasodhara and his mother in Book IV, though the importance of the latter is socio-religious rather than literary. Text and Trans. in Otto Crusius: Die Mimiamben des Herondas............umgearbeitet von Rudolf Herzog, Leipzig, 1926; and Knox: Herodes etc. (Loeb Classical Library). 2 Korte (Hellenistic Poetry, p.329) thinks Mandris is Metriche's lover.