Weapons and Warfare

The sculptures of this period display a variety of weapons, held in the hands of men and women and engaged in fighting with the rivals. Most of the depiction are associated with religious figures like gods and goddesses or engaged in religious ceremonies like cutting one’s head with a sword. The panels adorning the walls of the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram gives for the first time in the art of Tamilnadu, a graphical glimpse into not only the various weapons and its accessories used in warfare, but also the composition of the army and the combat system. The following account gives description of various weapons as seen in the sculptural art of this period.

(1) Mace

The mace is the earliest type of weapon depicted in the sculptural art of this period. It is most commonly seen held in the hands of the dvarapalakas guarding the shrine-front or facade of the cave temples and flanking the either ends of a structural temple on all its four sides. The very appearance of the mace shows its origin from the crudely made wooden-club of the prehistoric times. Mace carried by the dvarapalakas in the rock-cut temples at Mandagapattu (fig. 404), and Tiruchirappalli (fig. 405) has a cylindrical lower body abruptly fixed to the handle. However, the dvarapalakas at Dalavanur (fig. 406), Kuranganilmuttam and still later in the Siva shrine at Trimurti cave temple (fig. 407) and also by the Mahishasura in the Mahishasuramardini cave temple at Mamallapuram held a mace of much refined shape and it becomes comparatively slender with graceful transistion from the lower globular part to the handle. This refined shape of mace remains unaltered and continues to maintain a uniform style in the subsequent structural temples of this period. Fine examples of the same can be seen held by the dvarapalakas in the Iravatanesvara, Kailasanatha and Muktesvara temples at Kanchipuram. Very often a serpent can be seen coiling the mace, which indicates the Saivite nature of the dvarapalakas and the temple, which they are guarding. In all the cases the tip of the mace has a pointed ending, which was most probably made of metal. A circular band at the junction of the pointed tip and the mace may be holding the pointed metallic part in its place. Apart from dvarapalakas and the Mahishasura, in two cases a mace is also seen held by a seated male figure enshrined in the niche of the angalaya in the Kailasanatha temple complex at Kanchipuram.

(2) Sword, Dagger and shield

Sculptural representation of both swords and daggers, along with shields are available in the art of this period. Two types of sword are noticeable in this period–one is straight double-edged sword and the other is curved single-edged sword. In both the cases, the length and breadth of the sword varies. The earliest sculptural representation of a sword in the art of this period can be seen in a panel from the Thantonrisvara temple at Kanchipuram. Here a male figure is seen holding a sword having blunt tip and a prominent hilt (fig. 25). Similar sword can also be seen held by a male figure (fig. 408) in the act of fighting with his opponent at the top right side and another figure at the bottom right corner of the Mahishasuramardini panel in the cave temple at Mamallapuram. In the

Varaha-mandapa at Mamallapuram, fine example of a double-edged sword (fig. 409) can be seen held by Trivikrama in one of his hands. Similar sword can be seen depicted in the sculptures adorning the Kailasanatha, Muktesvara and Vaikunthaperumal temples at Kanchipuram. A double-edged sword of comparatively shorter length (fig. 410) can be seen held by a gana, executed on the vallabhi portion of the cornice in the Tirumulasthanattup-perumanadigal shrine in the Bhaktavatsala temple complex at Tirukkalukkunram. A shorter and broader variety of double-edged sword (fig. 411) can be seen held in the hand of the attendant of Durga viz., Jaya in the Mahishasuramardini panel in the cave temple at Mamallapuram.

The Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram displays in its panels many scenes of warfare consisting of soldiers wielding swords and shields. Rarely the king seated on the throne also holds upright a sword in his proper right hand. Fine example of the latter can be seen in a panel on the northern cloister wall (upper row) (fig. 412) and in another panel on the southern cloister wall (upper row). In all these cases, the swords depicted are of the first category. However, curved type can also be seen, especially in another panel (lower row) on the southern cloister wall. Due to minute size and lack of details, it is difficult to say whether these swords are of double or single edged one.

Curved single-edged sword can be seen depicted as held by the attendants of Durga in the panel of Mahishasuramardini carved in the cave temple at Mamallapuram and also in the Draupadi-ratha (fig. 413) at the same place. Curved variety of sword of comparatively more length can be seen held by the dvarapalika standing to the left of shrine entrance in the Kotikal-mandapam at Mamallapuram. Similar type can also be seen held by a dvarapalika carved to the left of the niche enshrining Durga on the northern wall of the Muktesvara temple at Kanchipuram.

Dagger in the sculptural art of this period is depicted tucked in the waist of the warrior. Normally a dagger is comparatively smaller in size and lighter in weight than a sword and has a pointed edge. A very fine and early example of a dagger in the sculptural art of this period can be seen tucked in the waist of Jaya, the attendant of Durga in the Mahishasuramardini panel carved in the cave temple at Mamallapuram. It has a prominent hilt portion attached at the end of the blade, which is depicted short in length and narrow in width (fig. 411). The devotee in the act of cutting his head, kneeling to the left of Durga in the panel at Varaha-mandapa also weilds a dagger tucked in his waist. In the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram, the king depicted in a panel on the southern cloister wall (lower row) has a small dagger, tucked in his waist and only its hilt part is visible (fig. 377).

Two kinds of shields can be noticed in the sculptural art of this period–Rectangular shaped shield having curved profile and circular shaped shield. Earliest sculptural representation of a shield in this period can be seen held by the warriors flanking the facade in the Avanibhajana-pallavesvara-griha at Siyamangalam. It is rectangular in shape and has a curved profile. Similar type of shield can be seen placed by the side of dvarapalika carved on the left flank of the shrine-entrace in the Kotikal-mandapa and also on the Draupadi-ratha at Mamallapuram. Shields of both rectangular-curved and circular type (fig. 414) can be seen held by the opposing parties respectively in the Mahishamardhini panel at the cave temple in Mamallapuram. Both the type of shields can be seen in the panels depicted on the inner wall of cloister mandapa in the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram. From these depictions it becomes clear that both rectangular-curved and circular shaped shields are in usage in this period.

(3) Disc

Disc or chakra is primarily represented in the sculptural art of this period as a weapon associated with Vishnu and Durga (fig. 417). It is normally shown as a plain disc with hub on both sides and rarely spokes was also shown. Throughout this period the disc is shown in profile as prayogachakra. However, in the Varaha-mandapa at Mamallapuram, Varaha is shown holding the disc in profile (fig. 415), whereas, the disc which Trivikrama holds is shown in full from front (fig. 416). From these depictions, the chakra can be assumed as a metallic disc, probably having sharp cutting edge, which could be hurled at the opponent. However, it is not depicted as a weapon used in warfare in the historical panels of the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram. Thus, it is difficult to conclude from the available sources, whether the disc was used per se in this period as a weapon or it was just represented in the icons following the scriptural injunctions.

(4) Bow, arrow and quiver

The earliest depiction of bow and arrow in the art of this period can be seen in the hands of dvarapalika (fig. 418) in the Kotikal-mandapam, followed by the Gana and Mahishasuramardini in the cave temple at Mamallapuram. In the Mahishasuramardini panel, Durga is seen carrying a quiver fastened to her back with arrows placed in it. Depiction of a pair of quivers can be seen fastened to the back of the dvarapalika (fig. 419) standing to the right side of the entrance into the Draupadi-ratha at Mamallapuram. Bow and arrow is a common feature in the art of this period, especially held in the hands of gods and goddesses like Tripurantaka, Trivikrama and Durga (fig. 420). Apart from these, purely religious associations, a most probable depiction of a contemporary hunter can be seen in the larger Bhagiratha penance at Mamallapuram. It portrays twice the image of a hunter carrying a bow in one of his hands. The usage of archery in the context of warfare can be seen in the historical panels (fig. 421) portrayed on the walls of the cloister mandapa surrounding the main shrine in the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram. From these depictions it is known that archery is one of the important constituents of the army. Archers can be seen among the infantry as well as among the elephantry. A beautiful depiction of a king (fig. 422) seated with a long bow in his left hand can be seen in a panel (upper row) on the northern cloister wall of the same temple. In all these cases the depiction of the bow is simple in the form of a long curved pole. Fine example of set of arrows can be seen at the back of Manmatha carved on the balustrade of Sundaravaradaperumal temple at Uttiramerur (fig. 423).

(5) Trident

Like the disc and mace, the trident can be seen only in association with the deities. It is normally seen as one of the attributes carried by Siva and Durga in their various forms. Like the mace, this weapon can also be regarded as prehistoric in origin, used by the hunting-gathering tribes for the purpose of hunting and self-defence. Both the axe and trident are prime attributes of Siva and its anthropomorphic representation can also be seen in the form of dvarapalakas. A trident in this period is depicted as a three-pronged one and either curved inwards (fig. 420). Its earliest depiction in this period can be seen on the top saduram of the norther pilaster in the facade of Avanibhajana-pallavesvara-griham at Siyamangalam. Here the sula can be seen placed at the back of Vrishabantaka-murti. In a rare depiction of Ekapadamurti in the shore temple at Mamallapuram, a trident can be seen held in his right hand. In the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram, which is a repository of Saivite sculptures, the trident can be noticed held in the hands of various forms of Siva like Brahmasiraschetakamurti, Tripurantaka, Dakshasamhara, Gajantaka, Kalari, Lingodbhava, Sandyanritta-murti and Natesa. It can also be seen associated with goddesses like Durga, Bhairavi and Chamundi.

(6) Axe

Similar to the trident, the axe is also associated with Siva. However, in the art of this period the axe can also be seen in secular themes like in the Govardhana panel (fig. 424) and Larger Bhagiratha panel at Mamallapuram and in the panels at the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram. In these secular sculptures it is represented in its natural form, just like the present day ones. In those depicted as held by the deities, specially crafted type of axe can be seen. In the Dharmaraja-ratha at Mamallapuram, Siva, Harihara and Ardhanarisvara are seen holding an axe, which has a shorter blade part inserted into a bulbous stem, which slenders towards the tip below. The blade part of the axe in these cases is also modeled flat (fig. 425). In the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram the cutting edge of the blade curls inwards as a prong. Axes of this type can be seen in almost all the images depicted in this temple like Kalari, Gajasamhara, Urdhvatandava-murti, Sandhyanritta-murti, Lingodbhava, Harihara, Natesa, Bhairavi and Durga. It is also interesting to see in these depictions that the blade of the axe is not inserted into the shaft, but tied by means of a cord. This feature can be seen very clearly in the images of Sandhyanrittamurti, Natesa (fig. 426), Bhairavi and Durga portrayed in the niches of the main shrines of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. Another interesting variety of axe can be seen held by Chandesa, depicted on one of the niches of the angalaya. Here, additionally an inward dent can be seen on the curved part of the blade.

(7) Spear

Depiction of spears, along with bow and arrow can be traced back to the rock art of the prehistoric period. Both these weapons helped the hunting–gathering community to hunt the animals with ease by maintaining a safe distance. Both the weapons are used for the purpose of hunting, offence and defence. From the archaeological evidences it is known that the arrow-heads and spear-heads were initially made of stone and they are used by hafting with the shaft, which is normally a straight wooden pole. In the sculptures of this period, the earliest depiction of a spear can be seen in the hands of a dvarapalaka (fig. 427) flanking the shrine dedicated to Siva in the Trimurti cave temple at Mamallapuram. The usage of spear in warfare can be very well noticed in two panels on the eastern (fig. 421) and southern cloister wall (fig. 428) of the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram.

(8) Noose

A noose (pasa) can be called as supplementary equipment used for binding the enemy. However, except for its depiction as one of the attributes of Ganesa and Durga, the sculptural art of this period do not show its actual usage. A best example can be seen in one of the left hands of Durga (fig. 429) in the Mahishasuramardini panel in the cave temple at Mamallapuram, where it is depicted in the form of looped cord.

(9) Cudgel

A cudgel (mudgala) can be seen held in the hands of the warrior flanking the facade of the Avanibhajana-pallavesvara-griham at Siyamangalam. It is in the form of a short rod, probably of wood with its sides tapering into a curved end (fig. 30).