Secular and Religious Figurines and Motifs in Jain Art

Guard Figures

Guards are generally represented in front of important residential complex, but the reason behind the depiction of guards in front of cave dwellings meant for Jain recluses is quite interesting. However, guard figures are noticed standing or mounted on animals in Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha, Dhanaghara-Gumpha, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, Manchapuri-Gumpha of Udayagiri hill and Tatowa-Gumpha No.1 of Khandagiri hill^[1]. In Rani-Gumpha, the Guards are depicted mounting on animals on either corners of the upper main wing. The guard mounted on lion on the right side is carved as pot-bellied and wears a dhoti, bangles, and necklace. On the other hand the animal act as mount on the left resembles like a bull. The guard carved as like a kilted foreigner in boots, covering the leg up to the middle of the calf and fillet on the forehead. A sheathed sword hangs by the left-side of the guard and his right hand rests on the thigh. The right pilaster of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha is carved with a tall, slender and meagrely draped female figure wearing heavy square ear ornaments, bangles, a garland and a beaded hara in the forehead. Her coiffure decorated with a flower and a leaf. She fondles a parrot perched on her fingers in the right hand. In case of Ganesa-Gumpha only one guard figure on the extreme right pilasters is carved. He holds a long spear in his right hand and the attributes in his left hand could not be ascertained due to badly damage of the image. In Dhanaghara-Gumpha, the guard figure stand in samabhanga posture holding a long spear in two hands against the chest. A sword is hanged on the left side of the waist. He is dressed with dhoti with central plate as lower garment and has a high bun with beaded boarder of the forehead depicts purely Indian art. The guard figures represented in front of guard chamber of Rani-Gumpha and Manchapuri-Gumpha are badly damaged. They seem to be the similar representation as like Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha. The representation of foreign elements like long boot, short skirt etc. in the guard figure represents the link with Hellenistic art.

Bracket Figures

The pillars and pilasters provided with brackets both at the outer and inner side of the verandah are carved with decorative motifs, floral motifs, human figures, animals, winged and enigmatic figures, dwarf gana figures, cavaliers, scenes of lion hunt, elephant catching, etc. In some cases the tiny gana figures are depicted as if they are bearing the whole load of the superstructure. Lotus and honey-suckles motifs are adorned the inner and outer faces of the brackets. The elephant worship scene, the performance of a dance with the tune of musical instrument under a tree, ladies holding trays filled with garlands, flowers and other offerings, boys playing before birds, hunting of lion through a long spear, winged and enigmatic figures sitting back to back, vidyadharas displaying floral buds and spouted vessels, women with folded hands are very remarkably carved on both faces of these brackets. The animals and human figurines on them are blended accordingly the curved fashion of the brackets.

Addorsed makaras, winged animals often with heads of birds and animal figures seated back to back, fighting with lions and subduing elephants etc., are also found depicted in the bracket figures which throw light on the masterly execution of the artists.

Arch Bands

On the flattened surfaces of the arch bands over the door-ways scrolls, single flowers, fruits, creepers animals, birds and stout human beings are carved. One usually noticed the figures of elephants, lions, deer, and makaras from the mouths of which issue the scroll work, etc. at the beginning of the arch. The outer edges of arches are surmounted by symbols like svastika, vadhamangala or by a triangular pointed crest, or finial enclosing a floral ornament or a figure. Honey-suckles, lotus, lotus-buds and other floral medallions occupy a major portion of the arch-bands with occasional display of animals chased by boys and birds carrying lotus buds in their beaks. These motifs are carved in low relief within limited space but show variety of animism and floral kingdom in living stone.

Vidyadharas

The semi-divine figures vidyadharas are generally found depicted as hovering in the sky with offerings in hands. They are noticed on either ends of the facade of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, Rani-Gumpha, over the sculptured panel in Manchapuri-Gumpha and in close compartments of Ananta-Gumpha^[2]. They are found at the beginning and end of a sculptured frieze or over some object or panel having religious affinity. The frieze of the upper main wing of Rani-Gumpha commences with a flying vidyadhara. He is decked with an elaborate head dress, a dhoti with plaits dangling in front, a floating scarf (chadar), kundalas, a necklace and bangles. He also holds a tray of flowers and a roll of garland in his outstretched left hand and in the right stalks of a lotus and three buds interlaced with each other intended for offering. The flying figures on either ends of the facade of Jaya-Vijaya Gumpha have not attained so much perfection as that of Rani-Gumpha. The vidyadhara of Manchapuri-Gumpha hastens towards the object of worship in the attitude of scattering flowers from a tray held in his left hand. The figures of vidyadharas in the Ananta-Gumpha represented with garlands and trays of flowers towards arches containing objects of worship. The one on the extreme left has picking a garland from the tray borne on the head of a fierce looking dwarfish gana with long ears. They too are dressed in dhoti and chadar, the ends of which are fluttering in the air. They have heavy turbans on their heads, bangles on the wrists and massive rings as pendent in their ears are stylistically represented.

Linear design

The linear design found in the cave art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri are mostly the bead, bead and reel, vertical and horizontal lines within sections, curved lines enclosing half medallions or enclosing arch-bands and floral devices within them and circles within circles bordering the bracket figures. The shafts of Ananta-Gumpha door pilasters are decorated with vertical rows of the bead and reel, diamond shaped jali, spiral flutings, alternate with vertical line of bead and reel and flowers between compartments. The brackets of Tentuli-Gumpha are bordered by horizontal and vertical lines in several sections. The arch-bands of Svargapuri and Manchapuri-Gumphas in several cases are provided with floral devices within interlaced and continuous circles and curved bands.

Trees

Trees are symbolically represented as forest or as an object of worship on the facades of the caves viz., Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha, Chota-Hati-Gumpha and Tentuli-Gumpha. The sacred representations of these trees are shown with railings surrounded by it or parasol over the tree. The portrayed of tree as forest can be noticed in the narrative panel of Rani-Gumpha and Chaota-Hati-Gumpha. The trees laden with fruits are also noticed on the wall of Guard chamber of Rani-Gumpha and in some independent figures of Ambika found in the Khandagiri hill.

Creepers

As a decorative motif the creepers represented on the flattened surface of the arch-bands over some of the door heads are often laden with fruits, buds and flowers.

Flowers

Flowers of numerous varieties in the form of decorative elements within arch-bands, space fillers in single patches, garlands in the hands of devotees and within trays, buds attached to stalks and held by bracket figures and birds, container of lotus lakes, adorning hair-dos of human and semi divine figures, trunks of elephants, fixed to the creepers and decorating the outer framework of the ghata bases, etc. are noticed at this place. Of the entire series, lotus attained the predominant position.

Animals

A large variety of animals, birds, reptiles, and winged animals are carved in some of the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri which indicate the knowledge of the artist about the physiognomy of these species of the contemporary period. But the fabulous and enigmatic creatures depicted in the cave art may reflect the then human intellectual pursuit and his believe in super natural things, which are unique in character and are above the human being both in power and spirit.

In the cave art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri various animal motifs are delicately carved on the stone surface. These motifs are included mainly of elephant, bull, lion, horse, antelope, fox, monkey, snakes, lizards and mythical animals etc. are represented in divergent manner viz.,-

1. Associated with Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis
2. Narrative friezes
3. Religious motifs
4. Wild scenes
5. Decorative elements
6. Capital figures of pillar and pilasters
7. Associated with other deities
8. Form the shape of cave

Some of the important animal motifs depicted in the sculptural art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri are discussed below.

Elephant:

Odisha had been noted from time immemorial for elephants and in Odishan art they also found abundantly represented in relief panels, brackets and as free standing figures. Elephant is a symbol of strength, virility, wisdom, fertility, prosperity and royalty. The tusker, she elephants and their cubs are depicted in form of crouching, standing with uplifted trunks, carrying lotuses, vessels, chauris, branches of trees, umbrellas or surmounting the capitals of door pillar and pilasters in the cave art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hill. Two monolithic elephants carved out of single stones are placed in front of the Ganesa-Gumpha guarding the entrance. They are holding bunches of leaves with a full blown flowers in their trunks. The facade of the same cave depicted elephants with riders and followed by soldiers. Elephants including she elephants and the cubs on either side of the arch of Chhota-Hati-Gumpha are majestically represented. Elephants pouring sacred water over the head of Lakshmi from pitcher held in their trunks deserve special notice in the third tympanum of the Ananta-Gumpha. In the opening tympanum from the left of the same cave depicts two elephants engaged in worshipping the four-tusked elephant with lotuses, the stalks of which are held in their trunks. A similar elephant worship panel with slight difference in detail is also depicted in Alakapuri-Gumpha. Elephant along with royal figures is depicted to pay homage to a scared relic in front. Crouching elephants in the caves of a hill and bathing in the pool are depicted at the front face of the two guard rooms of the lower main wing and the elephant herd attacking to a group of people in the upper wing of Rani-Gumpha.

Bull:

Muscular and aggressive, the bull has long been an important symbol in many cultures. The importance of the bull is reflected in its appearance in the zodiac as Taurus, and its numerous appearances in mythology, where it is often associated with fertility. In the Jain art bull is the symbol of Jain Tirthankara Risabhanatha. The white bull appears in the fourteen auspicious dreams of Devananda and queen Trisala before the conception of Mahavira. Its remarkable vitality and intimate association with man in agricultural operations made it a symbol of masculinity and fertility. In the Mauryan art, bull appeared as the crowning animal at the capital of the pillar. We are also getting evidences of humped bull in Indus valley seals and terracotta art. All the above facts suggest the significance of bull in the domain of ancient Indian art^[3].

Bull has been represented as crowning animal in the door pilasters of Ananta-Gumpha, Tatowa-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha and the verandah pillar of the lower right wing of Rani-Gumpha as well as within the arch band of Ananta-Gumpha, chased by boys. In Ananta-Gumpha it has been shown vigorously chased by corpulent wrestlers.

Lion:

In the Jain iconography lion has been associated with Mahavira, the twenty fourth Tirthankaras. The symbol of lion is the most befitting mark of his spiritual heroism. His forbearance, his austerities, his strenuous work in the path of destroying work is all unmistakable proof of his lion like personality^[4].

Lions have been depicted variously as:

1. capitals member over the door pilasters in Ganesa-Gumpha, Tentuli-Gumpha, Tatowa-Gumpha No.2;
2. one of the verandah pillars of right wing of Rani-Gumpha;
3. within arch bands chased by boys at Anata-Gumpha;
4. as stray figures near the pinnacle of one of the arch bands of the upper storey of Rani-Gumpha and
5. holding a prey in mouth in one of capitals of the verandah pillars of Alakapuri-Gumpha.

In few cases they are shown standing or running in full spirit and vigor while in other cases, they are depicted as either sitting back to back facing or crouching to on the top of the pillars in the group of other animals. In Ananta-Gumpha the hind legs of the upper two lions are tightly held by stout wrestlers and floral motifs are coming out from their mouths.

Horse:

Horse is a symbol of power, energy, wealth and abundance. It also represents speed, movement, desire and passion. It is a vehicle of Sun, Moon, Venus and Jupiter and is also a symbol of royalty. In Jainism it is the cognizance of Sambabanatha, the 3^rd Tirthankara. In the Mahavira-Gumpha of Khandagiri hill, it is carved along with the Tirthankara as lanchana where as it is also depicted in narrative panels and at the capital of pillar and pilasters. A well caparisoned horse provided with a saddle is noticed over the horizontal band and the interval between the semi-circular arch-bands of the lower storey of Rani-Gumpha^[5]. The richly caparisoned horse with the hunter is depicted at the upper storey of Rani-Gumpha. In Ananta-Gumpha, the horse is depicted as driving a chariot. It is also depicted as capital figures at the door pilasters of Ganesa-Gumpha and verandah pillars of the lower right wing of the Rani-Gumpha^[6].

Antelope:

Winged antelope figures are realistic in the hunting panel of the upper main wing of Rani-Gumpha as depicted in the space between the hunter and the lady on the tree. Deer are also represented in crouching position at the capital of door pilasters of Ganesa-Gumpha and Manchapuri-Gumpha.

Other Animals:

Besides elephant, bull, lion and horse, the other quadruped depicted in this site are fox, snakes and monkey. The representation of the two monkeys near the crest of an arch in the upper main wing of Rani-Gumpha is noteworthy. A bushy tailed animal or a fox seen near the end of the hunting scene also found depicted in the same cave.

Among the reptiles lizard, is depicted within the inner projection of the Bagha-Gumpha whereas a snake is depicted on the facade of the Ananta -Gumpha flanking the door arches and at the cave of depicted on the upper main wing of the Rani-Gumpha. In Ananta-Gumpha it is noticed above the door frame as a garland shape design is remarkable of their representation in early Odishan art. In another instance the serpent effectively entwined a huge tusker in a tree and is about to strike at his head^[7].

Winged and Enigmatic Animal Figures:

Winged and enigmatic figures are depicted on the faces of the capitals of pillar/pilaster’s and within the bracket designs of Bajaghara-Gumpha, Alakapuri-Gumpha, Patalapuri-Gumpha and Jagannatha-Gumpha of Udayagiri hill^[8]. The use of West-Asian motifs like honeysuckles, merlons and winged animals are found in pan India distribution preludes the possibility of an independent development of these caves. The animal have the head of bird, animal or human being are not clearly recognizable. They comprise animals which we with much difficulty have taken as horse, bull or lion, are attached with ram, goat, human, parrot, cock’s head. A running domesticated dog in another place of the false capital of a verandah pillar has also been set with two wings and a flowery tail. Another dog like animal has been provided with a parrot's beak holding a flower bud and a pair of wings. A huge fish with the stem of the lotus in mouth yet, form the decoration of one more face of the capital of a pillar in this cave. But the faces of the pillar tops of Alakapuri-Gumpha, Thakurani-Gumpha and Patalapuri-Gumpha contain numerous motifs of those winged and enigmatic figures, whose identification is difficult to ascertain. These fabulous creatures of imagination have been used at to fill some of the empty spaces, had perhaps been derived from the western concept and formed mainly a decorative order without any religious significance attached to them. The representation of different animals indicates people are also conscious about the fauna of their surroundings and their belief on super natural animal are reflected through art.

Domestic Appliance

Many objects used in domestic life have also been found in the cave art viz., seats, caskets, trays, bowls, spouted jars, pitchers, money purses, wicker stands, flywhisks, umbrellas, flower garlands, musical instruments of mridanga, flute, harp, cymbal and weapons of war like bow, arrow, shields, clubs, swords and spears etc.

Dress and Ornaments

The principal lower garment of the male figure is the dhoti or a sheet of cloth passed round the waist and then gathered in front. Above the waist, the body is usually represented as quite naked apart from a tight scarf or sheet of cloth which is generally thrown over the shoulders with the ends hanging down outside the thigh. In some cases it appears to have passed round the body and the end thrown over the left shoulder. The lower garments of the ladies mostly of sari which is tied by waist band with folds of the ends dangling in front. They also scarp as upper garments and cover the face with a veil while dancing. The contemporary dress and ornaments are well projected in the sculptural art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.

Hair Dress

Different varieties of coiffure are noticed both in men and women. Both men and women have long hair and tied in knots with curled locks in front and sides. The male hair dress has only two top knots bordered by band of hair locks at the base and the two knots are either arranged vertically above the head or one in the centre and the other slightly tilting to the side. However, evidence of hairs tied in three knots over the head is also found. In case of two knots, the main one is larger than the other and in case of three the central knot is more decorated.

In case of the ladies the hair are gathered at the top and tied in a piece of cloth or dragged to a side and sometime a band of curled locks or ringlets of hair decorate the forehead.

Some of the other designs of hair are:

1. the curled locks commencing from the forehead fall on one side or brought to the back,
2. the hair at the top is tied in ropes and then slightly tilted to a side,
3. the ringlets of hair were pinned to the head to gathered in a knot,
4. the hair is entirely arranged in ringlets and held in a chaplet allowing to them fall on either sides,
5. the simple and plain varieties shows hairs are just combed behind and the end tied in a knot,
6. the hair are just gathered at the top in a bulging shape and a thin veil covers them,
7. the hairs are plaited in a single pigtail and falls at the back and
8. the more elaborate ones are decorated with flowers, feathers of colourful birds and leaves.

Ornaments

The decorative ornaments marked on the male and female figures in Udayagiri and Khandagiri are seems crude and unsophisticated variety as like a touch of folk style. The girdles, a series of round beads arranged in separate strings and the number of strings range from one to three are found on the waist of the ladies. Necklaces are designed in rectangular, circular or petalled. The longer ones often run up to the chest and suitably decorated with both flat bands of plain metal or strings set with jewels. They are often attached with lockets at the centre. Studs and round rings and either closely attached to the lower part of the ear or hanging from it by a hook are represented as ear ornaments. Ornaments like bald, a ring of metal or clay of cylindrical plate ordinarily plain and heavy and ranges in number from one to nine are represented in the fore arm as ornaments. The ornaments for the legs are the circular anklets either one in each leg or a pair at times are noticed as leg ornament.

Independent Figurines

Jain images are found in different stone material in Odisha where as in metal particularly in bronze their number are very few and reported at places like Khuntapala in Mayurbhanj district; Bhanapur in Cuttack district; Achutrajpur and Kakatapur in Puri district^[9], Biripada of Rayagada district; Choudwar of Cuttack district and Tarangasagarpur of Jajpur district. In case of the Achutrajpur hoard is the usual cire perdue or lost wax process was used for casting the images^[10]. The composition of their alloys has not been chemically analysed but for the common usages described as bronzes.

The icons in bronze (copper) of Khuntapala comprise of three of Parsvanatha, three of Risabhanatha, two of Ambika and one unidentified Tirthankara images which are in badly damaging condition^[11]. The Parsvanatha figures were provided with a canopy of snake hoods, the Risabhanatha figures with jatabhara, a few strands of which fell on the shoulders and the Ambika figures are seen holding baby on their laps, lion as lanchana and bunch of mangoes in hands. Haloes in most cases are not visible but at least in one Parsvanatha figure it is in elliptical shape. The Tirthankaras are fashioned both in standing and seated posture on plain pedestals or lotus pedestals. Decorative arches with a pointed top, originate from the pedestal are fashioned with rows of beads and petals or radiating flames at the border. The second Ambika figure of the place is profusely decked with drapery, necklace, earrings, girdle, bangles and anklets.

The Parsvanatha image of Bhanapur worshipped at present as Ananta Vasudeva is standing in kayotsarga posture on a circular lotus pedestal supported by a square base with legs. A canopy of seven hooded snake is seen over his head. The auspicious srivatsa mark, a rare occurrence in Odisha is noticed on its chest. Hairs on the head are arranged in spiral knots with usnisa at the centre. The naga and nagi figures with three hooded snake canopy are depicted in the front part of the pedestal.

Of the three Jain icons recovered from Kakatpur, two are preserved in the Odisha State Museum and one in Asutosh Museum of Kolkata. The image in Asutosh Museum is the figure of Tirthankara Chandraprabha which kayotsarga posture on a lotus supported by a square pedestal and bears the conventional emblem, the crescent moon.

The Risabhanatha image from Kakatapur is an example of fine workmanship, with a beautiful jata-bhara, a serene expression of the face and graceful outline of the body. He is carved in kayotsarga posture on a double petalled lotus supported by a footed pedestal. Bull, the lanchana of the Tirthankara is engraved in front of it. On the other hand the Parsvanatha image is carved seated in dhyanamudra in a double petalled lotus displaying a canopy of seven hooded snake, trivali in neck, and snake as his lanchana.

The images of Ambika found at Achutrajpur dressed in a diaphanous sari held by a girdle with a flower shaped clasp and an uttariya partly covering the chest in an upavita fashion, the icon is elegantly bejeweled in anklets, valayas, a short beaded hara, armlets with a flower shaped central piece, large ear-studs and a short mukuta. The cloth and simple ornaments are treated in such a way that the beauty of the body has been enhanced effectively. She is rendered with bun-shaped coiffure.

The icon of Chandraprabha reveal high quality of soft plastic treatment with calculative proportionate and represents with the full roundish face, elongated ear lobes, short neck, broad shoulders and expanded chest sharply narrowing down to a relatively thin waist.

Vasapujya, the 12^th Tirthankara is the only independent figure of its variety found so far in Odisha^[12]. The facial and physiognomical forms, crude modelling and decorations indicate the figures are primitive, hard and rigid. He is carved seated in dhyanamudra over an oblong pedestal of the throne on a khura shaped base and a semi-circular mould at the top. The two ends of the horizontal lintel of the solid backrest are in the form of a makara heads supported by posts. A roundish halo with a raised moulded boarder of knitted tongues of flames and having a beaded line in the middle are beautifully represented on the back side of the Tirthankara. The Tirthankara and the Sasanadevi in the same piece wear anklets, a girdle or waist band, bangles, upavita, a broad necklace with a disc shaped pendent, armlets, ear-studs and a mukuta each. The halo behind these figures is in the form of a beaded arch edged by leaf shaped flames or branches. At its crown is a small chhatra with a thick cylindrical shaft.

There are almost ten bronze images of Jain Tirthankaras are found in the river Baitarani by a villager near Tarangasagarpur of Jajpur district^[13]. All the Tirthankaras are molded independently without any pedestal below their feet. Their mark of cognizance is also not depicted, which makes us difficult about their proper identification. One more interesting feature in few of these images is a scarf shown behind the Tirthankaras hanging from head to ankle, though their body parts are depicted as complete naked as found in case of digambara images. But the presence of garments is for the first time noticed in Odishan Jain art which indicates the existence of svetambara cult images in Odisha.

In short it can be concluded that the metal sculptures are ornamented or decorated as like the stone images.

Jain images in different stone materials and belonging to different periods are noticed in many districts of Odisha. The distinguishing features of Jain Tirthankara image found in Odisha are youthful body and nudity, long hanging arms up to the knee in case of kayotsarga and palm kept upward one above the other in case of dhyanamudra and the auspicious srivatsa symbol at the chest in the mild form. The asta-pratiharyas viz., kevala tree, throne/seat, trilinear umbrella, halo, cymbals and drums played with the palm of invisible gandharvas, flying garland bearers, chauri-bearers and lanchanas are noticed. In few cases Sasanadevis are also found depicted at the pedestal of the Tirthankara in a smaller size. Each Tirthankara has identified on the basis of their lanchana carved in his pedestal. Besides, the figures of Risabhanatha and Parsvanatha have identified with their unique features i.e. matted locks of hairs falling on the shoulders and canopy of the seven hooded snake overhead respectively.

Risabhanatha images in Odisha^[14] are found generally in kayotsarga or dhyanamudra posture over a lotus pedestal supported by crouching lions at the below. He is flanked by chauri bearers on either side, flying figures with garlands, heavenly music, trilinear umbrella, halo and the lanchanas are depicted in their respective position. Half-closed eyes, elongated ears, jatabhara as head gear with some locks falling on the shoulders are key features of Risabhanatha images in Odisha.

A number of Jain images have been recovered from Podasingidi and Vaidakhia located in the Baula hill range of Keonjhar district. The inscribed Risabhanatha figure^[15] now in Odisha State Museum originally from Podasingidi is seated in dhyanamudra on a lotus pedestal with a bull as mark of his cognizance. In front of the bull seems to be a lamp and two devotees kneeling with their hands joined in adoration. Flying gandharvas with garland in hands and the oval halo behind head are only depicted among the asta-pratiharyas which shows the Jain art in Odisha is a primitive stage at that period. On the basis of paleographical study of the inscription, the image can be dated back to circa 8^th century CE.

The Tirthankara images of Charampa have distinguishing feature of deep-cut marks on the body^[16]. By these marks the artist may try to indicate the rigorous of the austerities by which the Tirthankara had to go through to attain salvation. Similar cut marks are also found in few Jain images reported from Ada but they are not on the image but on the upper face of stone slab. The cut marks due to the sharpening of tools by the lay villagers cannot be also ruled out. On the inner walls of Navamuni-Gumpha of Khandagiri Tirthankara images are carved in high relief with the auspicious srivatsa mark on the chest. The verity of dvitirthi, tritirthi and chaturvimsatimurti are also found in Odisha portraying different Tirthankara images.

The dvitirthi images are reported from Pratapanagari, Jain temple of Cuttack and Podasingidi of Keonjhar district where as the tritirthi images are only reported from Choudwar and Balasore. The chaturvimsatimurti is found in the places like Kantabania of Jajpur district, Jamunda of Koraput district, Jagannatha temple of Baripada in Mayurbhanj district, Choudwar and Pratapanagari of Cuttack district. Interestingly, images numbering five (Khandagiri Jain temple), thirteen (Kantabania) and twenty one (Baripada Museum) are also found in a common slab.

In the Barabhuji-Gumpha altogether twenty five figures of Tirthankaras in a panel and Parsvanatha repeated twice covering the three walls of the inner chamber are found^[17]. The Parsvanatha figure standing at the commencement of the series is larger in size than the rest and positioned as mulanayaka. The rest of the figures of Tirthankaras are in yogasana on double petalled lotus pedestal supported by lions beneath the trees under which they attained their kevala-jnana.

In separate compartments Sasanadevis are carved below with their respective Tirthankaras^[18]. All the Sasanadevi images are found in lalitasana except the Mahamanasi in yogasana and Bahurupini in reclining on a cot are displayed. Twenty of them are on plain pedestals and four on lotus below which are their mounts. All except Bahurupini and Padmavati, the latter with a canopy of snake, have haloes behind their heads. The images of Chakresvari and Rohini are also relieved on the inner verandah wall of the same cave.

The Tirthankara figures both in standing and seated position of Mahavira-Gumpha represent crude workmanship.

A number of Jain images preserved in the museum of Khiching are mostly in damaging condition. Among these, the figure of Risabhanatha and Mahavira on one stele (dvitirthi image) now preserved in the British Museum, London^[19]. Both the Tirthankara in kayotsarga posture stands on lotus pedestal. Their lanchanas i.e., bull and lion are delicately carved on the pedestal below their respective Tirthankaras. Besides, all the asta-pratiharyas are also noticed in the image. On the basis of stylistic ground the images can be attributed to the circa 10^th -11^th centuries CE.

The Tirthankara image found at Adaspur^[20] are carved standing in kayotsarga posture and in complete nudity. Astagrahas have been depicted in meditative posture on either side of the Tirthankara. The prabhavali has been depicted just above his head which had curled locks of hairs. While a makara torana as decorative design is visible at the back. The halo behind his head is stylized in three bands of scroll work and is oblong in shape. Cymbals and drums played with invisible hands, flying garland bearers are the other features found at the upper portion of the stone slab. Champak flower marks are also found on either side of the image.

The Yaksha Gomedha and Yakshi Ambika are carved seated in lalitasana pose on respective Ictus pedestals designed in a common slab containing a series of seven devotees are found at Lataharana, Ayodhya, Jajpur, Choudwar and Koraput etc. They wore simple loin cloths in the same style and bear on them same types of ornaments, the only exception being in the conical head dress of the Yaksha and the round hair knot of his consort. The mango tree is depicted in the background. From the trunk of the tree a baby is found swinging in between Yaksha and Yakshi. At the top, Tirthankara Neminatha is found seated in yogasana, on a lotus pedestal. On both sides of the Tirthankara, the chauri bearers are also depicted with artistic care.

Jain images of Odisha are generally carved along with the lanchana, which are specially attributed to him or her. In the absence of lanchanas, inscriptions, hair style and attendants are the only available means for identification of individual Tirthankaras. These marks usually consist of animals, birds, reptiles, flowers and objects like pitchers, conch-shells, vajra, moon, svastika, nandyavrata, etc. and convey artistic tradition of the period of their execution.

In the initial stage the seat or throne are left plain upon which the Tirthankara and Sasanadevi are seated. But in course of time they are fashioned in one or two rows of petals of lotus flowers. In rare cases, it is noticed that decorative covering was spread over the lotus seat. These lotus pedestals are usually supported by lions either seated at ease facing to the front or rampart or seated back to back flanking the lanchana carved in the centre of the pedestal. In cases of bronze icons the lotus seat is supported by an oval or rectangular hollowed base supported by legs at each corner.

Devotees in kneeling position and folded hands, heaps of offerings at times on separate pedestals, figures of Yaksha and Yakshi displaying emblems in hands and mount are also noticed in the lower parts of the pedestals. In Parsvanatha images naga kanyas or naga devotees are a normal feature of representation within the pedestal in addition to the coiled snake. In case of Ambika and Yaksha Gomedha, seven female devotees are also seen in rajalilasana on the lower part of the pedestal.

Chauri bearers are represented in tribhanga posture with fly-whisks in hands across their shoulders on the right and left of the main figure. They are well decked with costumes and ornaments and held chauri is in one hand and the other rests on the hip. Usually, they are depicted on separated lotus pedestal but in some cases these figures flank the Tirthankaras standing on the same common pedestal. But in case of Chandraprabha image reported from Nuadhana, Jagatsinghpur district, the chauri bearers are standing upon elephants instead of lotus pedestals. The chauri bearers of the Risabhanatha image of Cave No.10 of Khandagiri are shown above the graha figures instead of their conventional place. The chauri bearers holding champak flower instead of fly whisk are found in the Risabhanatha image of Subei and in one Mahavira image which is now preserved in Odisha State Museum.

Decorative toranas with horizontal bars which are fitted with makara-mukha i.e. elephant head and crocodile face are found in some of the Tirthankara images. In few cases chains of pearls are falling from the mouths as like kirtimukha design found depicted in Odishan temple art. The horizontal bars on the other hand are relieved with floral medallions, beaded and wavy lines as well as various geometrical patterns. The Chandraprabha image of Hatamala is the best example depicting the horizontal bar supported by tapering shafts with neckings and ghata bases. The two ends of the bar are crowned by lion figures. The makara heads attached to the torana of the Tirthankara image of Martasol and the Parsvanatha image of Pratapanagari are display chains of pearls falling from their mouths. The Risabhanatha image of Ayodhya is envisaged within a pidha shaped miniature deul. Similarly, a Tirthankara image frorm B. Singhpur displays gaja-simha motif and the figure of Risabhanatha from Baudei (near Turirntira) and Tirthankara image in Ayodhya museum and Puri District Museum are flanked by a pair of vidalas. The marks of lotus and champak flowers along with a pair of geese at the base of the trefoil arch over the head are also found in some images. Champaka flowers has depicted in the Risabhanatha images of Pratapanagari, Adaspur, Nibarana, Panchagaon, Subei and few other places of Koraput district. The Chakreswari image of Subei is also displays champak flower on either side of the Sasanadevi.

Astagrahas seated in dhyanamudra over independent lotus pedestal are generally figured vertically on both sides of Tirthankaras. In some instances they are placed in a row in front of the lotus pedestal. Ketu is absent in the graha panel, perhaps the Jainas might not believe the theory of his separation from Rahu. They are all depicted in dhyanamudra with a pot of nectar and rosary in their hands except the Surya who holds two full blown lotuses. Each Tirthankara image is associated with a particular heavenly tree known as “kevala tree” under which the Tirthankara attained the kevala-jnana or perfect knowledge. It normally found depicted symbolically over the sacred umbrella in the shape of a few leaves or branch, spreading on either side. But in case of Amra (Ambika) the tree is most lavishly displayed behind the seated or standing figures and sometime laded with fruits. The Ambika image in Kachela and the Navamuni cave, Jain temple of Khandagiri are represented with lot of mangoes in the tree. The image of Neminatha is uniformly seated in the midst of mango leaves flanked by chauri bearers and topped by garland bearer and cymbals played with invisible hands. In the image of Ambika with Yaksha Gomedha, a small child is seen swinging from the trunk of the tree. The trees are quite noteworthy in view of their delicate carvings and lavish representations.

The canopy of seven hooded snake is the identification mark of Parsvanatha. In case of the seated figures the hoods just cover the head of the Tirthankara while in cases of standing images the coils of the snake originating from the pedestal are gathered at the back. The Parsvanatha images kept in the Jagannatha temple of Baripada are provided with a canopy thirteen hoods. The snake coils rolled behind the Parsvanatha figures of Pratapanagari, Ayodhya, Jajpur are remarkably fashioned. The figure of Suparsvanatha is represented with a canopy of five hooded snake.

Trilinear Umbrella

A threefold umbrella or chhatravali is usually shown over the head of the Tirthankaras. In some cases, they are very much decorated and in others they are shown in outline only^[21]. In most of the Tirthankara figures of Mahavira-Gumpha at Khandagiri, the umbrella is designed in the pattern of pidha deul. The outer faces of the umbrella folds in some cases are arranged in lotus petals fronted by rows of beads, in its outer edges. In case of some bronze figures, streamers are attached to the edge of the lower fold of the trilinear umbrella.

Flying Gandharvas

Hovering in the sky, gandharvas holds garland in hand is envisaged on top corners of Jain Tirthankaras. They are depicted either one or in pairs on each side. These figures are entirely absent with the Tirthankara figures of Navamuni-Gumpha in Khandagiri hill while found in pair on a Parsvanatha image at Pratapanagari. The garlands in their hands are mostly finished in a rolled fashion.

Divyadhuni

Cymbals or a drum to produce heavenly music (divyadhuni) on either side of the sacred umbrella are played with invisible hands of gandharvas. In rare cases however full figures of these heavenly damsels and semi divine figures are depicted playing with various musical instruments including blowing of conch-shells as noticed in the Parsvanatha image of Pratapanagari and Mahavira image at Odisha State Museum. These gandharvas are often represented on elephants displaying fly whisks in hands on either side of the Tirthankara at the top as evidenced in the Parsvanatha image of Pratapanagari kept in a shed. Tirthankara image of Koraput district, a tubular drum ribbed in outer sides is usually kept at the centre of slab at the top.

Halo or Prabhamandala

Halo or prabhamandala, a beautiful radiance is one of the asta-pratiharyas has been depicted behind the head of most of the Tirthankaras and Sasanadevi figures except the figures in the Navamuni-Gumpha of Khandagiri hill. At the incipient stage, they were entirely plain and elliptical in shape and later on these plain haloes were given a beaded border. During course of time they appear to be circular in design either entirely plain or with simple decoration in lotus petals and beaded chains. In more elaborate ones the visible surface was very delicately designed with profuse representation of lotus petals, floral medallions, auspicious marks, diamond shaped designs and various linear motifs. In complicated ones, they are designed in two sections, one inner and the other outer and both are equally decorated. The halos behind the figures of Koraput district are very richly decorated and the more noteworthy of the one being available with the Risabhanatha image of Kachela. The halo behind head of divine figures in a later stage is replaced by trefoil or pentafolia arch as noticed with the Tirthankara figures of Mahavira-Gumpha of Khandagiri and Digambara Jain temple of Cuttack, the Mahavira image of Odisha State Museum and the Risabhanatha figure of Nibarana etc. The outer bands of these arches are decorated with beaded chains and floral medallions. In exceptional cases they are surmounted by creepers, patches of lotus and champaka marks and inverted parrots crowned by kirtimukha.

The three fold marks in the neck is known as trivali are distinctly shown in all Tirthankara images. The hairs in the head of Tirthankaras except Risabhanatha are arranged in spiral curls with occasional evidence of usnisa at the centre. In case of Risabhanatha, the hairs are arranged in matted locks and a few strands of his falling on the shoulders. They are mostly combed towards the top and tied in a chaplet. In other case the collected hairs on the head are shown tied in a bulging knot tilting to one side. The head of these ladies are set with bejewelled crowns or with well decorated fore-head ornaments. They too are provided with ornaments for the neck, ears, waist, arms, wrists and ankles and draped in the lower parts. The Padmavati figure of Naguan of Jajpur, Kenduli of Cuttack, Ambika figures of Podasingidi and Kachela and the Sasanadevi figures of Barabhuji-Gumpha of Khandagiri are very elaborately decorated with costumes and ornaments. The necklace ranging from simple beaded chains to multi-stranded ones are mostly set with lockets. The girdles are fitted with floral medallions and tassels.

The auspicious mark on the chest i.e. srivatsa, in Jain icons of Odisha is very rare and noticed in the Risabhanatha images of Dolamundai of Cuttack, Kachela and Jeypore, in one Parsvanatha image at Jagannatha temple of Baripada and the bronze image of Parsvanatha of Bhanapur etc. Several postures like kayotsarga, yogasana, lalitasana, maharaja-lilasana, samabhanga and tribhahga are associated with sitting or standing Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis. The Sasanadevis display abhaya, varada, anjali, tarjani and vitarka mudras in their hands in addition to the numerous varieties of emblems viz., deadly weapons of war to manuscripts, musical instruments, rosary, water pot, crescent moon, baby on the lap, flowers, fruits and branches of trees etc. Apart from the distinctive lanchana below the pedestal of Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis, a series of sacred objects and heads of offerings are also found^[22]. They usually form a single or two pitchers, spouted jars and other items sacred to Jain religion.

The Jaina’s have a remarkable representation in art which may regarded as a substitute to Buddhist votive stupas i.e. chaturmukha or chaumukha and further named as sarvatobhadrapratima^[23]. Four Tirthankara images are generally represented on four cardinal direction of the chaumukha which is design either as a miniature rekha deul or pidha deul. In few cases only single image of Tirthankara is also found as reported from Kartara, Sitalesvara and Sana Bazar of Jajpur town area and Naguan of Vyasanagar area of Jajpur district and the one at found in Sitalesvara is carved in the shape of stupa and a Parsvanatha figure appeared in the dome portion. A number of miniature chaumukha made of laterite stone block having a single nice in one of its facade are found at Naguan and Nayagarh of Jajpur district. Besides, laterite blocks with apsidal top and provision of rectangular niche at Naguan are noteworthy to mention. The stone tablet depicting Ganadharas and Purvadharas are found the places like Panchagaon of Khordha district, Digambara Jain temple of Cuttack city, Kartara and Naguan of Jajpur district are minutely carved and depicted the deities in very smaller dimension and a Tirthankara as mulanayaka at the top.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

R.P. Mohapatra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Delhi, 1981, pp.116-117.

[2]:

Ibid., pp. 120-122.

[3]:

Ibid., p.130.

[4]:

Ibid., p.132.

[5]:

K.C. Panigrahi, The Archaeological Remains at Bhubaneswar, Culcatta, 1961, p.86.

[6]:

N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol.I, Bhubaneswar, 1964, p.44.

[7]:

R.P. Mohapatra, Archaeology in Orissa, Vol.I, New Delhi, 1986, p.133.

[8]:

R.P. Mohapatra, 1981, op.cit., pp.130-131.

[9]:

R.P. Mohapatra, 1984, op.cit., p.182.

[10]:

D. Mitra, Bronzes from Achutrajpur, Orissa, Delhi, 1978, pp.36-37.

[11]:

R.P. Mohapatra, 1984, op.cit., pp.183-184.

[12]:

D. Mitra, op.cit., pp.50-51.

[13]:

A.R. Sahoo, “A study of Jaina Images of Jajpur”, (un-published M.Phil thesis), 2004, pp.57-92.

[14]:

K.S. Behera and T.E. Donaldson, Sculpture Masterpieces from Orissa, New Delhi, 1998, pp.48-49.

[15]:

A. Joshi, “An unique Rsaba image from Podasingidi,” OHRJ, Vol. X, No.3, 1961, pp.74-76.

[16]:

M.P. Dash, “Jaina Antiquities from Charampa,” OHRJ, Vol.XII, No.2, 1964, pp.50-53.

[17]:

R.P. Mohapatra, “Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis of Khandagiri Caves,” in H.C. Das and et al. (ed.), Buddhism & Jainism, Cuttack, pp.53-60.

[18]:

Ibid.

[19]:

A.C. Sahoo, Jaina Religion and Art, Delhi, 1994, pp.187-188.

[20]:

P.K. Ray, Prachi Valley, Bhubaneswar, 1975, pp.53-55.

[21]:

R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., p.56.

[22]:

Ibid., p.57.

[23]:

A.C. Sahoo, op.cit., p.177.