Chapter 9: Conclusion

Odisha witnessed and embraced the flourishing trends of various religious faiths. It occupied a distinct place in the religious history of India for its exquisite religious heritage embroidered with glorious achievements of her mighty kings and people and their stupendous and marvellous monuments and master pieces of sculptures. Jainism has been playing a pivotal role through ages in the religious life of the people of Odisha. Jainism has gone a long way leaving its indelible imprints on the art and architecture of this land. The legendary and traditional accounts trace the beginning of Jainism in Odisha, a period much earlier than of the emergence of Gouttama Buddha. Tradition avers that Mahavira and Parsvanatha, the 24^th and 23^rd Tirthankara respectively, had paid visit to Odisha in their life time. Karakandu, the king of Kalinga patronised Jainism much before the advent of Chedi dynasty. Jainism reached the pinnacle of celebrity during the reign of Mahameghavahana Kharavela in the 1^st century BCE.

The rock cut caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri with the representation of narrative panel and symbols are the earliest examples of Jaina art in Odisha, which can safely be assignable to the 1^st century BCE. However, the depiction of Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis found in the caves of Khandagiri hills are of later additions. The history of Jainism in Odisha was shrouded in mystery for some time after the fall of Chedi dynasty. The stray inscriptions, copper plate grants and foreign accounts such as Asanpat inscription, Copperplate grant of Dharmaraja-II alias Manabhita and Si-Yu-Ki of Hiuen-T-Sang record the existence of the religion in the land but somewhat in an eclipsed manner. However, it flourished again during the rule of Somavamsis as evidenced by the engraving of Tirthankara and Sasanadevi images and inscriptions in Khandagiri hill. The majority of Jaina images, so far discovered in Odisha also belonged to the Somavamsis i.e. circa 10^th -11^th centuries CE. In Odisha Jainism never lost its importance and continued along with other religious faiths during the rules of Ganga and Gajapati dynasties and ultimately it mingled with the cult of Jagannatha sometime around the 16^th century CE. However, even today it retains its authority in many pockets of Odisha.

The survey and documentation of Jaina antiquities in different districts of the state unravels many new episodes of Jainism in Odisha. If the frequency and occurrence of Tirthankara and Sasanadevi image is taken into account, the most depicted images are Risabhanatha, Parsvanatha, Mahavira and Ambika. Their occurrence in large number may be due to their intense association with Odisha as maintained in legends, traditional accounts and literatures.

A number of new images have been brought to light through the present survey. For example in Jajpur earlier scholars recorded about only three images where as the present survey could locate fifty nine free standing fresh sculptures besides the chaumukhas which are almost 90 in number. Two new evidences of Jaina establishments in the district have also come to lime light. Two stone tablets depicting Ganadharas and Purvadharas are found in places like Kuansa and Naguan whereas earlier in entire Odisha only two such tablets were reported, one from Panchagaon and another from Digambara Jaina temple, Choudhury Bazar, Cuttack. Similarly, many new evidences of Jaina antiquities are reported from the district of Balasore, Bhadrak, Bolangir, Boudh, Cuttack, Keonjhar, Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara, Nayagarh, Khurda and Puri, etc.

During the survey, it is also noticed that Jaina images are represented in the Brahmanical temple art of Odisha. They are carved in the temple walls of group of stellate temples at Boudh and Muktesvara and Brahmesvara temple of Bhubaneswar, Somanatha temple at Budhapada and Sobhaneswara temple at Niali. It indicates that Jainism was also in a living state during the Somavamsis and Gangas who were staunch advocates of Brahmanism. Some structural edifices are also noticed at the site Ada in Balasore district, Naguan of Jajpur district and Biribadi of Rayagada district. Two fresh inscriptions, one in the pedestal of an image another in a chaumukha is found which will definitely help to reconstruct the historicity of Jainism in Odisha. Archaeological mounds related to the cultural history of Jainism in Odisha are also noticed at places like Kuansa, Kartara, Tarangasagarpur of Jajpur district, Jainabaja at Nasik of Jagatsinghpur and Ada of Balasore district. Potteries collected from these sites comprised mainly red ware, grey ware and black ware indicating affinity with the medieval period of Odishan history.

Jaina images in Odisha are generally made of sandstone or khandolite but examples of chlorite or muguni stone images are also noticed. A single image carved out of laterite blocks reported from Athagarh is the only of its kind noticed for the first time in Odisha. Metal images have been reported from Kakatpur, Bhanapur and Achutrajpur while the present field survey also reported bronze images from Choudwar and Jajpur. The notable feature of the images found from Jajpur (10nos.) that a few of them have garments like a scarf hanging from head to ankle at the back, possibly representing the svetambara sect of Jainism which is not traced before in Odisha. A humble attempt is made to document and bring forth to scholars about the images which are now kept in museums of other countries.

The present survey also reveals that a number of Jaina images reported by earlier scholars are either missing or lost from their original places. For example, Ayodhya in Balasore district and in Prachi valley particularly the images reported at the ashrams of Kakatpur areas are not traceable. One beautiful image of Risabhanatha from Tarangasagarpur, Jajpur is also stolen after few years of survey of the site. Similarly, Risabhanatha image at Nibarana was stolen in 2014 but was managed to be relocated in its place in 2015. Recently an image of Risabhanatha is stolen from Subei which is a State Protected Monument. So it is quite an alarming situation that image smugglers now targets the Jaina images which is a serious concern for the heritage of the state.

The Jaina architecture of Odisha is broadly divided into three categories viz., Rock cut monuments, structural edifices and monoliths. Udayagiri and Khandagiri are the earliest material specimens of cave architecture in Odisha. The depiction in relief of a double storeyed structure at the main wing of lower storey in Rani-Gumpha is the earliest depiction of building architecture in Odisha. The rock cut stepped well is also another architectural feature of the twin hill relates with Jainism. The structural edifices includes the apsidal structure at the top of Udayagiri hill, the ramp access to Hati-Gumpha and the temples found at Subei of Koraput district. Besides these structural edifices, the Jaina temples of Khandagiri hill top, Jaina temples at Cuttack and the sites having structural evidences in form of stones, bricks, potteries and architectural members are vividly described. These newly reported sites are Ada of Balasore; Kartara, Kuansa, Tarangasagarpur, Naguan and Nayagarh of Jajpur; Nasik, Kundeswar and Manapur-Gadhama in Jagatsinghpur and Biribadi of Rayagada district. But the structural evidences reported by the earlier scholar at Koisali of Mayurbhanj district and an about 9m of Jaina temple at Kachela is no more in existence are observed during present field survey.

The Jaina temples at Subei are smaller in dimensions and have simple ground plan with little decorations. They are the earliest datable (8^th century CE) Jaina temple architecture of Odisha without any frontal mandapa. Each structure is built of sandstone is tri-ratha on plan with a single low pyramidal tower crowned by an amalaka. There is no trace of mandapa in front of the shrine. The pabhaga is low in height and have only three plain moldings devoid of any carvings. Decorative motifs like square and circular rosettes enclosed within dotted squares in low relief are traceable near door-jambs in two shrines (northern shrine). There is no provision of niche in central projection (raha) for parsvadevatas. Exterior walls of temples are devoid of sculptural and floral decorations. The question of such a popular religion not having structural evidence is quite questionable. The reason may be the lack of supports from the royal ruling dynasties and secondly, there were no such organised structure among the Jaina community/guild to think about the monumental structure. Thirdly, they may prefer to go directly to the public instead of dragging them into the temple i.e. people oriented religion as evidenced by the discovery of loose sculptures in every nook and corners of Odisha. That seems to have indicated Jainism was popular among the people at that period.

The monolithic architecture are mostly included the chaumukhas and pillars with apsidal end at the top. Jaina chaumukha or sarvotabhadra pratima is an import aspect of Jaina art and architecture. A good number of chaumukha of miniature pidha or rekha temple design depicting Tirthankaras have been reported throughout the state.

The chaumukhas reported earlier are mostly made of chlorite or dolerite but present survey reveals around 90 chaumukhas are carved in laterite and they are also found in sandstone and khandolite as well. Like Buddhist votive stupas, these chaumukhas are found gathered in a place called Nayagarh near Naguan of Jajpur district which indicates an important pilgrimage centre for the Jainas. A dome shaped small stupa depicting a Parsvanatha image in one of its niche is also a new feature to the chaumukhas of Odisha. Chaumukhas with a positive elevated socket at the back is noticed at the chaumukhas of Baripada museum, Manpur-Ghadama, Sundarapada etc. A chaumukha depicting twenty four Tirthankara is a rare find in Odisha for the first time reported by the present scholar at Ayodhya of Balasore district and Kundeswar of Jagatsinghpur district. The interesting feature of the chaumukha is that it acts as an akashalinga over the mastaka of Gatesvara temple at Kundeswara in Jagatsinghpur district.

Pillars with apsidal end at the top and square or rectangular niches at the body parts are found at Naguan of Jajpur district. They are erected on the ground directly in two rows maintaining symmetrical distance from each other in an apsidal plan. Many of them are uprooted from their original place and found scattered in the surrounding areas. There are two possibilities of the use of the apsidal end pillars. Firstly, they may be used as thabas (stamba) as like Buddhist stupa railings and the sockets used to holds the s ci bars. But not a single s ci is found there at present. Secondly, the small images are carved and attached at the niches of the apsidal end as of donations similar like of chaumukhas and Buddhist concept of votive stupas.

Odisha is a vast repository of Jaina art which enriched the Indian art in many ways. The Jaina art of Odisha can be comprehensively divided into symbols, narrative panels and independent or free standing sculptures of both religious and secular figures.

The sculptural representations at the twin hill includes (a) the narrative panels on the facades of caves by illustrating various aspects of religious observances, dancing performances, military conquests and historical legends etc.; (b) individual figurines in relief such as Tirthankaras, Sasanadevis, guards, bracket figures, vidyadharas and crowning animals etc.; (c) and a series of decorative motifs of both floral and linear within the arch-bands, pilasters, brackets and railings etc.

Symbols like srivatsa, svastika and baddhamangala and a triangle headed symbol is found depicted in the side of the inscription, back wall of the caves or at the pinnacle of arched torana in front of the cave above the door at Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills. Srivatsa symbol is also noticed at the chest in few of Jaina sculptures of Odisha. Symbolic representation of tree worship, elephant worship, Gajalakshmi, Surya and celestial object worship are also beautifully represented in the cave art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hill. Regarding the art and iconography of the images a number of new features emerged.

In the narrative panels carved in the caves of Rani-Gumpha, Svargapuri-Manchapuri-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha, Chhota-Hati-Gumpha and Ananta-Gumpha, the artist gracefully depicts the historical and religious story in such a manner that it can touch the heart of everyone. All the characteristic feature of a woman is beautifully depicted such as nature of weakness as well as bravery, scariness and forgiveness.

A large variety of animals, birds, reptiles, and winged animals are carved in some of the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri which indicate the knowledge of the artist about the physiognomy of these species of the contemporary period. These motifs are included mainly of elephant, bull, lion, horse, antelope, fox, monkey, snake, lizard and mythical animals etc. are represented in a divergent manner viz., associated with Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis, in narrative friezes, religious motifs, wild scenes, decorative elements, capital figures of pillar and pilasters and form the shape of cave.

In case of free standing images the art style and iconography of images varies from region to region. There is not a common trend of art and iconography is used in Odisha. The images found from Koraput have much similarity with that reported from Andhra Pradesh region while the findings from north are similar to the images of West-Bengal. However, the depiction of asta-pratiharyas is a common representation in almost all the independent sculptures of Odisha. The auspicious symbol is not a regular feature of Odishan Jaina sculpture. Jata-bhara is a common hair design of Risabhanatha images in Odisha. Full blown lotus mark and champaka flower is another important feature of Risabhanatha images. Different designs of prabhamandals from simple one to multi-petalled lotus design and beaded boarders are also noticed. The divyadvani symbolically represented by depicting drums and cymbals played with hands of invisible gandharvas. But in course of time sky as back drop is added behind with them in low relief and some time the gandharvas appeared in full human shape with playing the musical instruments like cymbals, drums and conch as like that one of Parsvanatha image at Pratapanagari. Beside individual figures, important events of his life i.e., Kamatha’s alias Samvara’s attack scene are also found in the Parsvanatha image of Odisha. Similar types of depictions for the first time noticed by the scholar during field surveys are reported from Tentulidiha of Jajpur district, Ada, Ayodhya and Shergarh of Balasore district.

An image of Ganesa is found in one of the Ambika image at Osian of Puri district, one at the image of Ambika in Balasore and in Ajitanatha image of Jeypore, Koraput which is a quite interesting feature never traced before. Images believed to be svetambara sects are also for the first time noticed during the field survey. A few among the bronze Jaina icons (10nos.) recovered from the River Vaitarani near Tarangasagarpur of Jajpur district are decked with scarf like material which hanged from head to ankle at the back. On the other hand the images carved in the Somanatha temple at Budhapada near Jatani shows Indian dhoti as their lower garment. Depiction of the diminutive Jaina images in the temple wall reveals that either the patrons are not aware of these images or deliberately carved to show their religious tolerance or showing inferiority to them than the Saivite god and goddess.

In Odisha, independent Sasanadevi images are very rare besides the image of Ambika. Khandagiri hill is the only place in Odisha where one can find the depiction of twenty four Tirthankaras and their Sasanadevis. Their mark of cognizance is not strictly followed according to the Jaina canonical orders. In free standing images wheel as the lanchana is found in the image of Risabhanatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira. Ambika is found along with her Tirthankara Neminatha as well as Risabhanatha. The Ambika image of Jiolo Sasana of Puri district is designed as like of Mahamanasi, elephants pouring water over her in pots with their trunks. Mahamanasi along with Ambika at the pedestal of the Tirthankara Santinatha from Podasingidi is quite noteworthy to mention. The image of Santinatha image found at Amrutesvara temple at Tala Beguniapada in Puri district is represented with deer along with conch as his mark of cognizance is needed to be analysed.

As an auspicious motif, grahas dominate the decorative programme of many free standing images in Odisha. According to the traditions all works should begin with an invocation to the grahas otherwise human being can not attain their wishes. Until the 10^th century CE eight grahas are represented in Odishan temple art, particularly at the lintel architrave. This is because of the Astottari system of astrological calculation of Jyotisha in the early period in which Ketu is not included. The Vimsottari system of calculation prescribed by Varahamihira was introduced into Odisha by the Somavamsis, this system incorporated Ketu among the grahas. The earliest astagrahas slab originally attached to the southern raha niche of Laksmanesvara temple, now housed in Odisha State Museum. The earliest navagraha appears on the temple of Buddhikomna and Boudh in upper Mahanadi valley.

The concept of astagrahas as represented in the Jaina images of Odisha may due to the following reasons—

(i) Jainas probably follow the Astottari system of astrological calculation of Jyotisha.

(ii) Somavamsis introduced the Vimsottari system of astrological calculation but the images during this period depict only astagrahas instead of navagrahas may be due to a symmetrical depiction i.e., four on each side. Depiction of ninth grahas may make disproportion to the symmetry.

(iii) According to local tradition one cannot fulfil his/her material desires without pacifying the grahas. Some Jaina images are depicted with astagrahas and the particular Tirthankara is considered as the ninth grahas and thus, the image is worshipped as navagraha. Similar concept may have been used by the Jainas to give a message to the people that the Tirthankara is more venerable than the other grahas.

Without the study of inscription, Jainism in Odisha is incomplete. It is well known that the historicity of Kharavela and his patronage towards the Jaina religion was traced only after the discovery of Hati-Gumpha inscription. The first reference to the coinage system of ancient Odisha and the word Bharatabharsa is known only through the Hati-Gumpha inscription. The earliest name of Viraja in an epigraphical record is also found in the Ganesa-Gumpha inscription of Udayagiri hill. The discovery of inscriptions in different nooks and corners of Odisha are unquestionably widening our knowledge about the historical facts that happen in the past in relation to this holy land. A number of inscriptions noticed in Jaina sculptures are deciphered earlier by scholars while two more fresh inscriptions are added by the present scholar. The inscriptions are still not deciphered and will definitely provide some valuable information about the Jainism in Odisha.

The existing age old Jaina antiquities in the form of caves, sculptures as well the inscriptions and the Jaina temple at Udayagiri and Khandagiri also give impetus to the tourist influx to the state. The growth and prospects of tourism industry in Odisha in relation to Jaina heritage of Udayagiri and Khandagiri is analysed on the basis of last seven years tourist trends at the ticketed monuments of ASI. The problems and impediments of the site and concrete measures for the growth of Odishan tourism in general and Udayagiri and Khandagiri in particular are highlighted.

The Jaina images in Odisha have been assigned to a date from the 8^th to 11^th centuries CE. The images of Keonjhar are rightly assigned to the 8^th century CE on account of crude workmanship, circular plain halo, plain pedestal carved with the lanchana in low relief and has not represented all the asta-pratiharyas. The images of coastal and southern Odisha particularly of Balasore, Bhadrak, Jajpur, Jagatsinghpur, Cuttack, Khordha, Nayagarh and Koraput are stylistically more developed. The images having asta-pratiharyas including highly decorated prabhavali, torana in low relief at the back side of the image and lanchana with high relief are safely can be dated to the 10^th -11^th centuries CE. The fully demarcated trefoiled torana with beaded boarder and some time fully open at the back are the general features of the Ganga period sculpture. So, images having this type of image like that of Risabhanatha image of Nibarana in Prachi valley can safely be dated to 12^th /13^th century CE. Among the asta-pratiharyas divyadvani played by divine musicians is common feature in all the Jaina images of Odisha in 9^th /10^th century CE. The musical instruments like drums and cymbals are depicted played with the hands of invisible gandharvas. But, during Ganga period they appear in human form playing musical instruments. So the date of Parsvanatha image of Pratapanagari should be reanalysed as it was earlier dated to 10^th century CE. The other notable image of this image is the depiction of vidyadharas in couple instead of as single holding garlands. The building material of stone can be taken into account for the dating of the images. Besides sandstone and khandolite, black chlorite stone preferably used for making Jaina sculptures in Odisha. The Black chlorite stone first started used by the Somavamsi but its prolific use can be noticed during the Ganga period i.e. from 11^th to 13^th centuries CE. Depiction of astagrahas are taken into account for dating the image as pre 10^th century CE by the previous scholars may not probably appropriate as Jainas are adopted the Astottari calculation of Jyotisha. A number of Jaina image are also found depicted in the temple art of Ganga period i.e. Somanatha temple at Budhapada and Sobhanesvara temple at Niali which indicates the Jaina sculptures have a long span of prevalence from the 8^th century CE to 13^th century CE in Odisha. Thus Jainism has not completely vanished from the cultural horizon of Odisha but co-existed parallel to the other religious faith during the Ganga period. It was in the 16^th century CE, Jainism was merged with the Jagannatha cult.

Jainism in Odisha had been a living religion for centuries. The adherents of the faith have left for the posterity moderately a large number of monumental evidences which account for the wide prevalence and popularity of Jainism in this region. The Jaina relics are mostly found in the form of loose sculptures placed hither and thither or worshipped as Gramadevati or preserved in the form of Brahminical deities in the temples or in private collection.

Jainism which held non-violence as a supreme virtue and laid emphasis on celibacy and renunciation contributed a lot to the culture of Odisha in particular and India in general. Besides playing a fascinating role in the religious life of the people, it contributes a lot to the cultural heritage, especially in the realm of sculptural art which add a glorious feather to the cap of Odishan as well as Indian art, architecture and also contributed largely to the illustrious role that Jainism played in the religious realm of our land.