Chapter 2: The origin of Jainism in Odisha (Orissa)

The sacred land of India, anciently known as Bharatavarsha is a repertoire of many religious beliefs and faiths. It produced three of the six major religions of the world i.e. Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Jainism which emerged as an offshoot of Hinduism in the 6^th century BCE, as a protestant religion, had a profound influence in the religious life of the country. The 24^th Tirthankara Mahavira was revived the old religion as an alternative to the over ritual stricken Hinduism. For more than one thousand years the religion flourished as a major religion of the country along with Buddhism and Hinduism and there after survived as minor religion at the cost of the growing popularity of Buddhism and Hinduism. The religion still retains its identity in the religious life of the people with several Jaina establishments and followers as noticed throughout the length and breadth of the country.

Jainism, an institutionalized religion is still a living faith among some communities of Odisha^[1]. Its contribution to Odishan art, architecture, iconography, literature and on the whole to its cultural heritage is immensely significant. The religious instinct inculcated by this religion has left an indelible mark in the cultural life of people. Jainism has all along instilled a religious zeal among its votaries, the concrete expression of which is seen all over the state in works of art and architecture, sculptures, chaumukhas, caves, temples and apsidal chaityas. Odisha is one such place in the country where Jainism flourished along with Buddhism and Hinduism from its early days till at least the medieval period as attested by literary and archaeological sources.

The origin of Jainism in Odisha is shrouded in obscurity. Traditional accounts of the Jaina sacred literature and epigraphic evidences suggest that possibly the Jaina faith obtained a footing in Odisha from the earliest times of its appearance. Literary evidence, however, proves that Odisha, in ancient times, has a close association with Jaina Tirthankaras. Risabhanatha or Adinatha known in the traditional accounts of the Jaina as the founder of Jainism is believed to have been associated with the cultural history of ancient Odisha^[2]. In the lines 11-12 of the famous Hati-Gumpha inscription^[3] there is a reference to the fact that the image of Kalinga Jina was carried away from Kalinga by a Nanda king. This image is variously identified with Sitalanatha, Risabhanatha and throne of Jaina (Jinasana) by different scholar^[4]. The reason behind identifying the image as Risabhanatha is that the image of Rishabhadeva at Satrunjaya is called Satrunjaya Jina and that of Abu is called the Abuda Jina so on the image of Risabhanatha of Kalinga might have called the Kalinga Jina carrying the national significance^[5]. However, this fact amply suggests, Jainism was the state religion of Odisha in the 5^th and 4^th century BCE. The earliest reference to the country of Kalinga in the Jaina literature is in connection with Sreyamsanatha, the eleventh Tirthankara. The Jaina literature, Avasyaka Nirukti^[6] mentions that the eleventh Tirthankara Sreyamsanatha was born at Simhapura, capital of Kalinga. Aranatha, the eighteenth Tirthankara, received his first alms in the city of Rajpur, which according to the Mahabharata^[7], was the metropolis of Kalinga. Parsvanatha, to whom Jaina tradition gives the twenty third place in the hierarchy of Jaina Tirthankara is believed to have visited Odisha and preached Jainism in this region. This is attested by the numerous sculptural representations of Parsvanatha in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri and also found in each and every corner of Odisha in large numbers. Parsvanatha Charita written by Bhavadeva Suri in the 13^th century CE mention the marriage story of Prabhavati, daughter of Prasenjit, king of Kusasthalapur with Parsvanatha and the rivalry with Yavana king of Kalinga with the latter.^[8] Uttara dhyayana sutra refers to a king named Karakandu who was an ardent disciple of Lord Parsvanatha, the 23^rd Tirthankara^[9]. The Parshvanatha charita of Bhavadeva Suri and Jaina Kshetra Samasa mentions that Parsvanatha preached Jainism in its chaturyama form^[10] in Kalinga at a place called Kopakataka where he broke his fast in the house of Dhanya and the place is identified with modern Kupari in Balasore district^[11] by scholars. Mahavira is believed to have preached his gospel in Odisha keeping the cordial invitation of the kshatriya king of Kalinga named Chetaka^[12]. Jaina Haribhadriya-vritti records that Mahavira came to Kalinga as a mark of his father’s friendship with its king^[13]. The Jaina Harivamsa Purana and Avasyaka Nirukti mention about Mahavira, the 24^th Tirthankar who visited Tosali and preached his doctrine at Kumari parvata which is identified with modern Udayagiri hill at Bhubaneswar^[14]. The Vyavahara Bhasya^[15] speaks of Toshali as a center of Jaina preachers and laity and a place of a marvelous image of Jina which was guarded by king Toshalika. The Jambudiva Pannati^[16] includes Kalinga in the list of Aryan countries suitable for wandering of Jaina monks.

Early antiquity of Jainism in Odisha is also supported by epigraphical evidences. The earliest epigraphical record about the religion is Hati-Gumpha inscription^[17] of Kharavela dating back to the 1^st century BCE, which inform us that Jainism was the state religion of Kalinga during the 3^rd – 4^th centuries BCE, during the invasion of Nandaraja of Magadha. King Kharavela, a devout follower of Jainism rescued the Kalinga Jina by defeating Bahasatimita of Magadha in his 12^th regnal year^[18]. In the eighth regnal year, Kharavela led an expedition to Mathura to protect this age old stronghold of Jainism from the hands of the invading Yavanas. He also commissioned several rock-cut caves for dwelling of Jaina ascetics at Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills^[19]. During the time of Kharavela, Jainism appears to have reached the acme of its prestige and glory in Odisha and considered as the state religion of Kalinga as inferred by the Hati-Gumpha inscription^[20]. To understand and evaluate the history of Jainism during 1^st century BCE the fallowing line of the Hati-Gumpha inscription needs to be discussed exhaustively.

Line one:-

(Swatika Symbol) Namo Arahamtanam namo savasidhanam Airena Maharajena Mahameghavahana Cetaraja-Vasa-Vadhanena Pasatha-Subha-Lekhanena Caturanta Luthita guna Upetena Kalinadhipatina Siri Kharavelena^[21].

The record opens with invocations to the Arahatas and Siddhas which indicates to his sincere devotion to this religion. With the fall of the Chedi dynasty Jainism suffered a setback due to the lack of royal patronage and growing popularity of Buddhism and Saivism.

Tracing the history of Jainism in Kalinga in the early centuries of Christian era, scholars have focused their attention upon the archaeological discoveries at Sisupalgarh excavated in 1948-49^[22]. The discoveries included one gold coin bearing the name of the issuer ‘ Maharajadhiraja Dharmadamadhara’ who was a Murunda King and Jaina by faith^[23]. According to Dathavamsa, a king named Guhasiva, was a worshipper of the Nigranthas (Jainas)^[24].

From the fall of Chedi dynasty (1^st century CE) to the 7^th century CE, the history of Jainism in Odisha cannot be systematically traced. However, some stray references lead us to opine that Jainism continued as a living religion and it retained its popularity among the masses although it ceased to royal patronage. The religion revived its position to some extent during the 4^th century CE as attested by the Asanpat inscription of Maharaja Satrubhanja of Naga dynasty^[25] who is said to have donated wealth to various Mathas, Bhikshus, Carakas, Parivrajakas and Nigrahantas. Another piecemeal information to suggest the prevalence of Jainism in the centuries of early Christian era is that the Matharas had named one of their political headquarters as Vardhamanapura in honour of Vardhamana Mahavira^[26]. Huien-T-Sang’s (7^th century CE), who visited Kalinga during the rule of the Sailodbhavas, speaks about the existence of Jainism along with Buddhism and Hinduism in his account. According to his observation, Kangoda had 10,000 Jaina population^[27]. The Banapur plates of Dharmaraja II alias Manabhita^[28] who ruled over Kangoda during the circa 695-730 CE records about a land grant given by his queen Kalyana Devi at Madhuvataka village situated within the Vishaya thorana in favour of two Jaina monks Arhatacharya Nasichandra and his disciple Prabodha Chandra which indicates that Jainism was a living faith in the Sailodbhava kingdom. This fact is further corroborated by the discovery of 10 Jaina bronze images and large number of chlorite images from Achutrajpur and Banapur area. Besides, the images found from Podasingidi in the district of Keonjhar indicate an affluent Jaina center in the circa 8^th century CE.^[29]

In the circa 10^th -11^th centuries CE Jainism regained its glory under the ruler of Somavamsis, particularly under Udyotakesari^[30] as evidenced from the large scale activities of converting some caves into sanctuaries, cleaning of decayed wells and tanks and carving image of Trithankara and Sasanadevis in the rear wall of such sanctuaries in Khandagiri and Udayagiri hills. These activities are authenticated by two inscriptions^[31] engraved in 18^th regnal year of Udyotakesari in Navamuni cave.

Jainism was not in utter state of decadence during the reign of Gangas and even Gajapatis. It is known one Kannama Nayak, a devout worshipper of Jina and a subordinate of Utkala king installed a sacred image of Jina at Remaranigiri in a temple called Rajaraja Jinalaya during the eleventh regnal year of Anantavarman Rajaraja II of Imperial Ganga dynasy^[32]. The Jagannatha cult, which evolved as a dynamic politico-religious force during the Imperial Gangas, assimilated and synthesized all other cults and faiths within its fold. Scholars have observed the presence of many aspects of Jainism like kaibalya, mokshya and even the concept of Rathayatra (chariot festival) in the Jagannatha Cult^[33]. Unlike Buddhism, Jainism did not completely merge with Jagannatha cult nor disappear completely, but remained as a lesser religion confined to the business communities of the state. There is a vast area in the Prachi valleys known as “Jaina Vada” whose inhabitants are Jainas known as sravakas/ sarakas. Sarakas also inhabit at the some parts of the district of Cuttack, Dhenkanal, Balasore and Mayurbhanj, are remnant of early Jaina people seem to be Hinduised^[34]. An exquisitely beautiful Jaina temple was constructed in the first quarter of the 19^th century CE^[35] on the hill top of Khandagiri which has now become one of the most sacred places for the Jaina pilgrimages in India. Cuttack town has three Jaina Shrines^[36] located at Chaudhury Bazar, Jaunliapati and Alamchand Bazar, constructed during the 20^th century CE, showing the pervasiveness of the religion up to the recent time.

With such an outstanding history of the religion, Jaina vestiges are found throughout the length and breadth of the state. The important Jaina establishment in the state are Khiching, Kuntapal Naktipat, Badasahi and Koisali in Mayurbhanj district^[37]; Ayodhya, Ada, Avana and Kupari in Balasore district^[38]; Charampa in Bhardrak district; Hatadiha, Kuansa, Tarangasagarpur, Bansabadi, Kartara, Naguan, Nayagarh, Permanandapur and Jajpur town in Jajpur district^[39]; Baula hill range and Podasingidi in Keonjhar district^[40]; Choudwar, Athagarh, Banki, Pratapanagari and Cuttack town proper in Cuttack district^[41]; Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Khordha district^[42], Prachi valley, Achutrajpur, Barala in Puri district^[43] and Kamta, Charmula, Chatua, Bhairava Singpur, Jamunda, Subei and Jeypore in Koraput district^[44] etc. These establishments are broadly represented by detached sculptures both of stone and bronze, Jaina chaumukhas, temples, viharas, chaityas, caves and votive tablets depicting ganadharas and purvadharas.

It seems that Jainism suffered an eclipse with the subsequent rise of Buddhism and Saivism in Odisha. It must be noted that Brahmanism remained a major religion of Odisha throughout ages, though Jainism and Buddhism had their periods of ascendancy. The period of Jaina ascendancy in Odisha was over towards the beginning of Christian era and it continued to co-exist along with other religious sects. Jainism has all along shown a remarkable non-antagonistic attitude towards Hinduism, which according to competent authorities, is one of the causes of its survival. The same spirit worked in Odisha and Jainism continued to co-exist as a minor religion along with other religions. Jaina images are found in different places of the state either individually or with the sculptures of Buddhist and Brahmanical pantheons. Saivism which become a predominant religion in the subsequent period appeared to have shown liberal attitude to Jainism as is clearly discernible from the representation of Jaina images, though in diminutive size in the Saiva temples. The Jaina images in Mukteswara, Brahmeswara temple, Somanatha temple at Budhapada in Khordha district; Sobhanesvara temple at Niali in Cuttack district and stellate temples in Boudh district, clearly reveal the co-existence of this religion with Saivism. Thus, Jainism in Odisha played an illustrious role on the cultural life of people and continued as one of the religion up to the modern times.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

H.C. Das, Cultural Development in Orissa, Calcutta, 1985, pp.183-210.

[2]:

M.N. Das (ed.), Sidelights on History and Culture of Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1977, pp.307-16.

[3]:

N.K. Sahu, Utkal University History of Orissa, Vol.I, pp. 397-412.

[4]:

A.C. Pradhan, A Study of History of Orissa, Cuttack, 1984, pp.158-161.

[5]:

M.N. Das, op. cit., pp. 307-308.

[6]:

J.P. Jain, Avasyaka Nirukti, Varanasi, 1961, p.325.

[7]:

P.C. Ray (trans.), Mahabharata, Santiparva, Sec.-IV., pp.4&8.

[8]:

R.P. Mohapatra, Jaina Monuments of Orissa, Delhi, 1984, pp.15-16.

[9]:

P.K. Mishra (ed.), Comprehensive History and Culture of Orissa, Vol.I, p.475.

[10]:

Ibid.

[11]:

N.K. Sahu, op.cit., Vol.I, p.182.

[12]:

M.N. Das (ed.), op.cit., p.309.

[13]:

H.C. Das, op.cit., p.203.

[14]:

Ibid.

[15]:

B. Das, “Early Jainism in Orissa”, OHRJ, Vol. XXII, No.483, Bhubaneswar, 1977, pp. 99-109.

[16]:

Ibid.

[17]:

N.K. Sahu, Kharavela, Bhubaneswar, 1984, pp.311-346.

[18]:

R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., p.193.

[19]:

A.K. Rath, “Jainism in Kalinga in Pre-Mauryan Period”, OHRJ, Vol.XI, No-2, Bhubaneswar, 1962, pp.124-127.

[20]:

R.C. Majumdar (ed.), The Age of Imperial Unit, Mumbai, 1960, p.214.

[21]:

A.C. Sahoo, Jaina Religion and Art, New Delhi, 1994, p.78.

[22]:

Ancient India, No-5, New Delhi, 1949, pp.62-105.

[23]:

A.S. Altekar, The Journal of Numismatic Society of India, Culcatta, XII, pp.1-4.

[24]:

N.K. Sahu, op.cit., p.451.

[25]:

S.N. Rajguru, OHRJ, 1970, pp. 170.

[26]:

D.C. Sarkar, Epigraphica Indica, Vol. XXVIII, pp.298-302.

[27]:

M.N. Das (ed.), op.cit., p.313.

[28]:

D. Mitra, “Glimpses of Jaina Relics in Orissa”, Odisha Review Monument Special, 2010, Bhubaneswar, p.10.

[29]:

Ibid., pp.10 & 16.

[30]:

A. Ghosh (ed.), Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol.I, New Delhi, 1974, p.159.

[31]:

S.N. Rajguru, I. O., IV, No-3, pp. 236-237.

[32]:

Ibid., pp.316-317.

[33]:

B. Ray, Studies in Jagannatha Cult, New Delhi, 1993, pp.25-29.

[34]:

R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., pp.43-46.

[35]:

P.K. Mishra, op.cit., p.315.

[36]:

R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., p.31.

[37]:

Ibid., pp.110-117.

[38]:

Ibid., pp.104-110.

[39]:

E. Padhi, “Jaina Sculptural Art”, in G. Mohanty and et al. (ed.), Cultural Heritage of Jajpur, Bhubaneswar, 2005, pp. 85-93.

[40]:

R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., pp.96-104.

[41]:

N. Panigrahi, “Jainism and the Jains of Cuttack City”, in K.S. Behera and et al. (eds.), Cuttack One Thousand Years, Vol.II, Cuttack, 1990, pp. 313-320.

[42]:

R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., pp.48-72.

[43]:

K.C. Panigrahi, Archaeological Remains at Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, 1981, p.93.

[44]:

J.K. Patnaik and S.K. Kar, “Jaina Heritage of Koraput”, in G. Mohanty and et al. (ed.), Cultural Heritage of Orissa: Koraput District, Vol. XI, Bhubaneswar, 2008, pp.164-170.