1. Materials for Garments (a): Fibers made out of Barks

Barks were used in two ways. In the first method, barks taken from certain trees or plants were directly used as clothing, while as per the second way, fibers made out of barks were employed in making dress materials. Directly worn barks were usually termed as Cīra, Cīvara or Valkala. Even though its use was in vogue in a period prior to the date of Samhitas and Brāhmaṇas, the earliest reference to barks used as clothing is perhaps in Taittirīya-saṃhitā^[1] and Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa^[2]. It was usually worn by hermits, sages, ascetics and by those practicing penance and also by those setting out for exile. Bark garments were not stitched and hence they were tied in knots in certain places. We get plenty of references to the above mentioned types of people wearing barks.

Purāṇas^[3] give references to Pārvatī observing penance dressed in bark. In Vāyupurāṇa (Vāmanapurāṇa)^[4], we have references even to Asuras, engaged in penance wearing barks. In one place, Śiva is addressed by the terms like Cīravāsas, Valkalājinadhara, Hiraṇyacīra etc. It is foretold in Purāṇas that people at the end of Kali age will happen to wear bark garments as a result of the disruption of the society.

In Vālmīki-rāmāyaṇa, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa living in Daṇḍaka forest as ascetics are described thus -

[...].^[5]

Kālidāsa^[6] has introduced Śakuntalā and other hermits as clad in barks. In Kumārasambhava^[7], Pārvatī observing penance also is depicted as clothed in bark. Pāṇini^[8], Bhāsa^[9], Kauṭilya^[10], Varāhamihira^[11], Bāṇa^[12] etc. also allude to the use of barks. It is interesting that Bāṇa^[13] has described Sāvitrī as wearing a white bark, which gives hint to the preparation of bark from different varieties of trees.

Fibers taken from the barks of plants and trees like Kṣuma [Kṣauma?], Aṭaśī (Flax), Śaṇa (Hemp), Nāgavṛkṣa, Lakuca Vakula and Vaṭa were usually employed in making fibre made dress materials. Pāṇini^[14] gives the name Aumaka to fibre made clothes in general. Among the fibre made clothes, the most famous were–

a) Kṣauma

Kṣauma is made out of the yarn of Kṣuma (Linseed) plant. Some sort of sanctity was attached to this costly cloth and hence they were worn in ceremonial occasions especially by royals.

In Vedic literature, the word Kṣauma is seen in the sense of a silk cloth. But later on, the word is exclusively used for linen cloth. According to Amarakośa^[15], Kṣauma is the synonym of Dukūla.

In Vālmīki-rāmāyaṇa^[16], Rāma is described as worshipping the gods, attired in Kṣauma, on the day of his coronation. Similarly, while receiving their daughters-in-law, the queens of Ayodhya wore Kṣauma clothes. The dress of Rāvaṇa attending the court is described as Kṣauma. In another context, the coffin sheet of Daśaratha is mentioned as Kṣauma. Kālidāsa^[17] has referred to Śakuntalā as clothed in Indupāṇḍukṣauma, while leaving the hermitage.

b) Dukūla

Dukūla is a thin and soft silk cloth, made of fibres taken from the inner bark of the Dukūla plant. Dukūla was used for both upper and lower garments. The expression Dukūlayugma was common.

Amarakośa^[18] has referred to Dukūla as a synonym of Kṣauma, while in Mahābhārata^[19] the words Dukūla and Kṣauma are used in different sense. We read of Dukūla of various colours and that embroidered with various patterns. In Matsyapurāṇa^[20], the poison Kālakūṭa appearing in the form of a person is depicted as dressed in yellow Dukūla. Bāṇa^[21] has mentioned Dukūla of pale, white and saffron red colours. In Kādambarī^[22], Dukūla decorated with flower designs is described. In one context in Harṣacarita^[23], Harṣa who set out for Digvijaya is represented as attired in Dukūla embroidered with swan patterns. Bāṇa^[24] has mentioned the term Dukūlavalkala in one place. From this it is evident that Dukūla is a texture made with bark fibres. Kālidāsa^[25] alludes to the use of Dukūla in summer. From this it is clear that Dukūla is a thin and cool silk cloth suitable to resist sun heat.

c) Netra

As per the description given by our writers, Netra is a thin and soft silk cloth. But from which tree the fibers were taken for the preparation of Netra is not known. Amarakośa^[26] mentions Netra as a synonym of Aṃśuka.

We have very few references to Netra. Perhaps it is in Matsyapurāṇa^[27] that we have the earliest reference to it. There a Hemanetrapaṭa is mentioned, which may be a Netra with golden embroidery. Kālidāsa^[28] has talked about Netra in one place. But Bāṇa^[29] alludes to it in many places. He has described Mālatī and Harṣa clad in Netra. In one context, Bāṇa has compared the thinness of Netra to a snake’s slough. In another context, a soft and thin Netra is compared to the stalk of a tender plantain tree. He alludes to embroidered Netra also. In one place Bāṇa describes a Netra cloth embellished with designs of flowers and leaves. From Daṇḍi^[30], we learn that this variety of silk was produced largely in Gauḍa country.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

. II.5.3, 5

[2]:

. I.4.7, 6

[3]:

. Matsyapurāṇa, 156.9

[4]:

. 97.108-25, 69.273, 97.64, 55.48, 58.98, 98.121

[5]:

. II.52.70

[6]:

. Abhijñānaśākuntala, I.17

[7]:

. V.8,16

[8]:

. Aṣṭādhyāyī, 6.2.128, 3.1.20

[9]:

. Pratimānāṭaka, Act I

[10]:

. II.23

[11]:

. Bṛhatsaṃhitā, LXXXVIII

[12]:

. Kādambarī, pp.130, 133, 174

[13]:

. Harṣacarita Eka Sāṃskārika Adhyayana (Harṣacarita), p.78

[14]:

. Aṣṭādhyāyī, 6.3.140

[15]:

. II.6.113

[16]:

. II.8.7, I.72.10,V.45.4, II.87.32

[17]:

. Abhijñānaśākuntala

[18]:

. 2.6.113

[19]:

. Mornier Williams, p.483

[20]:

. 250.15

[21]:

. Harṣacarita, I.85

[22]:

. The Nātyaśāstra Tradition and Ancient Indian Society (NTAIS), p.72

[23]:

. VIIth Ucchvāsa

[24]:

. Harṣacarita

[25]:

. Ṛtusaṃhāra, IV.3, II.25

[26]:

. 3.3.180

[27]:

. 70.50

[28]:

. Raghuvaṃśa, VII.39

[29]:

. Harṣacarita, p.31,72

[30]:

. Avantisundarīkathā, p.63