Buddhism: An Integrated Interpretation

“Padmabhushan” K. SATCHIDANANDA MURTY
Professor of Philosophy, Andhra University, Waltair
Honorary Director, Buddhist Studies Centre, Nagarjuna University

According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama embarked on a “noble quest”, an “aryaparyeshana”, which lasted for six years, during which he resorted to various teachers, practised asceti­cism and meditations of various types, thought in a deep, serious and sustained manner on reality, the human condition and the human destiny, and ultimately discovered Truth and became enlightened. From then on till he passed away he taught at different times in different ways to suit the levels, capacities and needs of those who came to him. (“Bhagavan Buddho sattanam ajjhasayan anusayam atimuthim viditva deseti.”–  Majjhima Nikaya).“Desana lokanathanam sattvasayavasanugah, bhidyante bahudha loka upayairbahubhih punah.” – Bodhicittavivarana)More­over, he permitted his followers to have, canons in their own different languages. (“Anujanami bhikkhave sakhyaniruttiya Buddhavacanam pariyapunitum.”– Cullavagga)

I will refer to the aspects of truth he taught on three important occasions: (a) his utterance immediately after he became enlightened: (b) his first teaching at Rishipatana Mrigadava (Saranath) and (c) his last teaching in, a salavana in Kusinagara. Of these the first is known as the “hymn of victory”, the second as the Sutra which established the kingdom of righteousness (dharmacakrapravartana), and the third the Sutra of the Great Nirvana (mahaparinirvana).

Before considering these one must be clear as to what the goal of his “noble quest” was. He was trying to find the Good and seeking the unsurpassed supreme state of Peace (Kusalaga­vesi anuttaram santivarapadam pariyesamano). One may say his quest was a metaphysical as well as a psychological adventure of a high order.

Now the last and keyline of the “hymn of victory” (“Visan­kharagatam cittam tanhanam khayamajjhagaa”–Dhammapada).The Pali scholar U. Dhammajoti translated it as follows: “My mind has attained the unconditioned (Nibbaana); it has attained the end of craving.” The great scholar D T. Sujuki translated it thus: “The mind is released from its binding conditions” and craving is under the control of one who understands its nature and working. Sujuki adds that the mind freed from its binding conditions is the absolute ego, Atman. It is not, he explains, something concrete and substantial which exists as such, separate from the ordinary psychological self. It is, he points out, what the Buddhists call sunyata (emptiness) or anupalabdha (unattain­able).

Now the kernel of the Sutra which establishes the Dharma­cakra: “Yasca kameshu kamasukhallikayogo hino gramyah” and “Atmakayaklamathanuyogo” – “Etau ca bhikshavo dvavantavanupa­gamya madhyamayaiva pratipada tathagato dharmam desayati” (Lalita­vistara). It means: “The Buddha teaches righteousness by the middle path avoiding the two extremes, on the one side the extreme of wallowing in vulgar sensual pleasures and unbridled gratification of desires and on the other side the extreme of asceticism which mortifies the mind and body.” The Buddha’s Middle way is what tries to resolve a predominant tension in the Indian psyche and ethos, namely, that between impulsiveness and sensual gratification, on the one hand, and self-control and asceticism, on the other hand.

Lastly, I come to the essence of the teaching before the Parinirvana. In the Pali version what is oft-repeated is this: “When contemplation (samadhi) is perfected (paribhavita) by virtue (sila), wisdom (panna prajna) by contemplation, and mind by wisdom, the fruit and advantage arising therefrom are very great. Mind perfected by wisdom is freed from the great evils, viz., individuality, delusion and ignorance.” The Buddha’s last words were: “All composite things are perishable by nature; strive diligently.” (“Vayadhamma sankhara appamadena sampadetha”). The Sanskrit version of the Mahaparinirvan a Surra says: “Whatever is phenomenal is impermanent; this is the Dharma of birth and death. The annihilation of birth and death brings bliss in Nirvana.” It further teaches: “The Atman is the Tathagatagarbha. All beings possess a Buddha Nature, which is what the Atman is.” Thus in this Sutra as in some others was revealed the four-fold transcendental reality of eternity, bliss, self and purity. The Tathagatagarbha in its own nature (svabhavasthita) is, the Srimala Sutra as well as other scriptures say, permanent (nitya), steadfast (dhruva), calm (siva) and eternal (sasvata). The Tathagatagarbha is the embryo, essence or potentiality of the Tathagata, the Buddha Nature, the Absolute, immanent in all, but accidentally defiled. To realise it is to be in Nirvana. This doctrine is found in the Pali scriptures also. Nirvana is, the Nikayas assert, a transcendental consciousness, beyond space, time and causation. It is perfection and happiness, infinite and luminous. Vinnanam anidassanam, anantam sabbatopabham. It is present in everyone of us, but is tainted by adventitious defilements. It is supreme truth, purity and the good – paramo sacca, parisuddhi and paramakusala. It is an expansion of the mind, mind becoming boundless (vimariyadikatena cetasa), in which there would be no strivings and selfishness. It is infinite consciousness. By his discovery of Nirvana and the way to it and his revelation of it to all, the Pali texts inform us, the Buddha opened the gates of Immortality to all. Aparuta te sam amatassa dvara.

It is clear from the above that Buddhism is not rationalism, not “takki vimasi” as the Pali scriptures clearly said; and the Sanskrit scriptures confirm this by declaring that it cannot be the object of logic (“Tarkikanam avishayah ... yam desayanti vai nathah.” – Lankavatara Sutra)It is not also based on tradition, on what is heard, or on a disclosure from God. It is not “anussavika.” It is based on the enlightenment won through sila, samadhi and prajna of Gautama, the Buddha. It is “ananussuta dhamma”, not got from a mysterious source or from an external person, but by his personal endeavour and awakened understand­ing. (Sangarava Sutta) The root of Buddhism is Bhagavan. (“Bhagavanmulaka no dhamma”–Majjhima Nikaya) The Buddha is not a mere human being, he is not also God, but an enlightened being who attained Transcendence and is not subject to passing away. (Brahmanimantanika Sutta) His vision is infinite (anantagocara ), he is trackless (apada), and free from the phenomenal (nishprapanca). (Dhammapada). The Sanskrit Sutras assert he is Wisdom and Compassion (Prajna and Karuna) and an Omniscient Being. He is Reality as it is in itself (bhutatathata), and, as already said, the Buddha Nature of the Buddha is in everyone, indeed in everything. What made Gautama the Buddha is latent in all of us. We are all potential Buddhas.

The great Buddhist philosophers, unsurpassed for their metaphysical profundity and logical acumen, declared that logic is the sphere of the foolish or worldlings (balas, prithakjanas) and that the teaching of the Buddha is not its object. (“Balasrayo matastarka tasya’to vishayo na tat.”)It is uncertain, incom­prehensive, empirical and wearisome. (Sutralamkara) But, as Dingnaga said, for refuting heretical views, for discussing modes of cognition and their objects, and for probing into the profundity of the Buddha’s teaching, logic is useful. But it is to be emphasized that Buddhism claims to be “ehipassika”, what can be verified by every wise man for himself. (Nettipakarana) For this one should with faith tread the path prescribed by the Omniscient Being. One ofthe earliest Buddhist scriptures, The Suttanipata, says: “Faith is man’s supreme wealth...By it one crosses the flood of samsara,” (“Saddhidha vittam purisassa settham...saddhaya tarati ogham.”) Faith, a Sanskrit Sutra asserts, is the supreme vehicle (“Sraddha hi paramam yanam”–Dasadharmasutra). Faith is unwavering confidence in the enlightenment of the Buddha, the Perfect and Omniscient One, teacher of gods and men. (Samyutta Nikaya, V. 199-200; Majjhima Nikaya, I, 36.8). It is to have right views, accept the path of a Bodhisattva, believe in the Buddhist doctrines and in the qualities, powers, authority and reliability of the Buddha, and to acquire in oneself the qualities of the      Buddha. (Akshayamati Sutra, quoted  in Sikshasamuccaya.) Faith is the first and fundamental step towards the realisation of the Buddhist Truth and the achievement of Buddhahood.

Buddhism is atheistic, if by atheism is understood disbelief in an eternal, omniscient, omnipotent and perfect person who created the universe out of nothing at a particular time and is ruling it. In this sense no Asian religion is theistic. But Buddhism admits a morally perfect being, Mahabrahma, with great knowledge and power, but not omniscient and omnipotent, union (sahavyataya) with whom is possible through universal love. (Tevijja Sulfa) It also admits gods, demons and other beings, and its cosmology accepts different universes and conceives time in a cyclic way.

Buddhism denies what is impermanent, woeful and unstable by nature as the Self. Whatever is like foam, mirage, or magic, in other words, whatever is empty, unsubstantial and without essence, should not be considered as “mine, I or my Self.” It exhorts one to be mindful, self-possessed, cast off all fetters and make a refuge of oneself and act aspiring for the Changeless State (accutam padam). (Samyutta Nikaya). It repeatedly teaches: “Let past be past, nor future longings house; ... the past is deadt, the morrow not yet born. Whoso with insight scans his heart today, let him ensue eternal Changelessness.” “Asamhiram asankuppam tam vidvamanubruhaye.” (Bhaddekaratta Sutta) In Nirvana one abides in the experience of bliss with a self that has become Brahman (The Absolute). Brahmabhutena attana viharati. (Anguttara and Majjhima Nikayas). Such being the case, the Lankavatara Sulfa declares: Those who hold the theory of the no-Self go against Buddhism; the Buddhist self-theory like a world-end fire burns the forest of no-Self theory. (Nairatmya-vadino... badhaka Buddhadharmanam.            Nairatmyavanadahakain jajvalatyatmavadoyam yugantagnirivotthitah”) Nagarjuna rightly remarked that Buddhism is neither the no-Self theory, nor the self-theory of the sort found in many other religions and philosophies. Buddhaimauna na canatma kascidityapi desitam. (Madhyamika Karika)

It is very difficult to achieve transcendental consciousness or to realise one’s Buddha Nature. Understanding the profound doctrine culminating in Prajna and practising the requisite sila and samadhi, is not something within the competence of all. For such people there is an easy way. They can, The Srimala Sutra says, “Keep the Lord in mind and experience his presence.” This is possible, one of the most ancient Pali texts suggests, through upasana (worship) of the Buddha, dispeller of darkness, who sees all, who plumbs the universe, who has overcome rebirth is free from cankers and has triumphed over all. (“Saccahvayo brahme upasito me”–Suttanipala.)ThePali Tripitaka testifies to the value of Buddhapuja (Buddha-worship), Buddha-patthana (Buddha-prayer) and Buddhasthuti (Buddha-praise /eulogy). Constant remembrance of the Buddha (Buddhanusmriti) leads to salvation. On this is based the Japanese Nembutsu (constant uttering of “Salutation to the Buddha”) practice. An old and authoritative Theravada work, Milindapanha, asserts that if, at least on the eve of death, one believes in the Buddha one will be saved. At least three scriptures, the large and small Sukhavativyuha Sutras and the Amitayurdhyana Sutra, which have exercised and are exercising tremendous influence on East Asian religious life, are exclusively devoted to the exposition of Buddha-bhakti. Great thinkers like Nagarjuna (in his Dasabhumivibhasha Sastra and Mahaprajnaparamita Sastra), Asanga and Vasubandbu recognised the easy way: The mere hearing and chanting of the Buddha’s name establishes one in the supreme enlightenment state. (“Tathagatasya namadheya grahanamatrena niyato bhavati anut tarayam samyak sambodhaviti.”– Asanga, Mahayanasutralankara Sastra Karika. So in Mahayanasamparigraha Sastra.)

The author is grateful to Professor Mahesh Tiwari (Dept. of Buddhist Studies, Delhi University) and Professor Samdhong Rinpoche (Tibetan Institute, Saranath), who kindly read this in typescript and made suggestions. But the responsibility for the views expressed is that of the author only.