Strīkāmā vai gandharvāḥ. Spirit-possession, women, and initiation in Vedic India
Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: Strīkāmā vai gandharvāḥ. Spirit-possession, women, and initiation in Vedic India
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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Per-Johan Norelius
Acta Orientalia:
(Founded in 1922 and published annually)
Full text available for: Strīkāmā vai gandharvāḥ. Spirit-possession, women, and initiation in Vedic India
Year: 2015 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.4451
Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0
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Summary of article contents:
1) Introduction
The study centered on the Vedic concept of the gandharvas and their female counterparts, the apsarases, explores their roles, relationships, and significance in Vedic literature. Often depicted as celestial beings associated with fertility, procreation, and spirit possession, the gandharvas have unlocked the cultural dynamics of Vedic societies concerning gender, marriage, and initiation rites. The investigation extends to their interactions with mortals, especially women, revealing a complex network of social rituals, mythological narratives, and spiritual beliefs.
2) The Nature of Spirit Possession
One core concept discussed is spirit possession, which is prevalent in the belief systems surrounding the gandharvas. Predominantly possessing women, these beings are viewed as intermediaries providing esoteric knowledge in trance-like states. This aspect is significant because the possessed individuals often obtain a higher societal status, allowing them to participate in rituals and discussions typically reserved for men. Furthermore, possession by the gandharvas can sometimes lead to madness or illness, indicating the potentially harmful consequences of such encounters.
3) Gandharvas as Fertility Deities
The idea of gandharvas as fertility deities is another pivotal theme. The text discusses various rituals aimed at harnessing their powers, particularly in agricultural contexts and marriage ceremonies. The belief that the gandharvas preside over procreation suggests their importance in establishing connections between humans and divine realms. Rituals performed by young girls seeking permission to marry further emphasize the connection between the gandharvas and the domestic sphere, reinforcing the necessity of their blessings for fruitful unions.
4) Social and Mythological Interactions
The exchange between gods and gandharvas in mythological narratives provides further insight into their societal roles. One myth depicts the gods bartering for the goddess Vāc in exchange for soma, emphasizing the gandharvas’ role in mediating between divine knowledge and human experience. This narrative illustrates not just a competition for sacred resources, but also unveils the intricate dynamics in relationships between celestial beings and mortals, particularly concerning women.
5) Gender and Adolescent Initiation
The text explores the connection between gandharvas and adolescent initiation rites, suggesting that these beings served as protectors of unmarried youths, both male and female. The rituals surrounding marriage are accompanied by offerings to the gandharvas, establishing them as guardians during this pivotal transition in life. This link between initiation rites and the presence of gandharvas highlights their role as transitional figures in the rites of passage for young individuals entering adult society.
6) The Role of the Sabha
The sabhā, or assembly hall, is analyzed as a space where young men engaged in activities reflecting the social customs of their time. This space was associated with gambling, dancing, and courting among young men and female courtesans—elements that intersect with the presence of the gandharvas and their relationship with women. The assembly acts as a backdrop, illustrating the social organization and expectations of young men within Vedic society, alongside their interactions with celestial beings.
7) Apsarases and Cultural Norms
The apsarases, as celestial courtesans, also play a critical role in Vedic culture. Their portrayal in the texts as integrally linked to pleasure, beauty, and even mischief reinforces the cultural norms surrounding femininity and sexuality. The relationship between the apsarases and the gandharvas reveals societal implications regarding marriage, promiscuity, and the status of women in Vedic civilization, especially in relation to the male-dominated spaces of the sabhā.
8) Conclusion
In conclusion, the exploration of gandharvas and apsarases illustrates their significant roles not only as mythological entities but also as cultural archetypes in Vedic society. Their intersections with spirit possession, fertility dynamics, adolescent rites, and societal structures demonstrate a rich tapestry of beliefs that influenced the lives of both men and women. The enduring legacy of these concepts speaks to a broader understanding of ancient Indian beliefs, rituals, and the complex relationships informing gender roles within Vedic traditions.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What is the significance of the Vedic gandharva in mythology?
The Vedic gandharva represents a spirit of fertility, procreation, and lust. They can possess mortal women, sometimes causing madness or revealing sacred knowledge, acting as mediators between the divine and human realms.
How do gandharvas relate to conception and procreation in Vedic texts?
Gandharvas are often viewed as deities presiding over conception. They are believed to be involved in the process of fertilization, and offerings are made to them by young women before marriage, seeking their blessings for offspring.
What role do women play in the context of gandharvas?
Women, particularly unmarried girls, are seen as objects of desire for gandharvas. They may also become oracles or mediums through which gandharvas communicate, sharing sacred knowledge during possession.
What connection exists between gandharvas and spirit possession?
Gandharvas are closely associated with spirit possession, often inhabiting mortal women during trance states. These possessions can lead to the revelation of knowledge regarding rituals, incantations, and esoteric practices.
How are gandharvas depicted in relation to marriage rituals?
In marriage rituals, the single gandharva, Viśvāvasu, is invoked to bless newlyweds. He is seen as a protector during the initial stages of marriage, and rituals are performed to seek his permission and favor.
Do gandharvas have any connections to madness in Vedic literature?
Yes, gandharvas are associated with causing madness, especially in pregnant women. This belief is present in several texts where they are seen as malevolent spirits that may lead to miscarriages or mental illness.
What is the relationship between gandharvas and apsarases?
Gandharvas and apsarases are often depicted as couples, with gandharvas as male spirits and apsarases as their female counterparts. They engage in both playful relationships with mortals and heavenly revelries, embodying youth and beauty.
How do possession and divination practices manifest in Vedic traditions?
Possession practices involve individuals, often women, becoming oracles and revealing divine knowledge. During possession, they act as intermediaries, capable of answering questions about the future, often influenced by gandharvic spirits.
What cultural parallels exist for the concept of the gandharva?
Cultural parallels for the concept of the gandharva exist in various traditions, where similar spirit figures possess women or serve as deities of fertility, revealing knowledge or bestowing blessings in exchange for sexual favors.
In what ways are youth and social groups connected to the gandharva?
Gandharvas are connected to youth and social groups, particularly men’s societies. They embody qualities of youthful desire and freedom, representing a transitional space before entering adulthood and marriage, thus tying them to age-group traditions.
Glossary definitions and references:
Oriental and Historical glossary list for “Strīkāmā vai gandharvāḥ. Spirit-possession, women, and initiation in Vedic India”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
1) Gandharva (Gamdharva, Gamdharvadurve):
Vedic term for Gandharva, a celestial being associated with fertility, procreation, and spirit possession.
2) Gandharvas:
Plural of Gandharva, indicating multiple celestial beings with similar functions related to procreation, wisdom, and rivalry with gods over sacred substances like soma.
3) Veda:
The oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, containing hymns, rituals, and myths involving Gandharvas and apsarases, which form the core of Vedic religion.
4) Woman (Women):
Central in myths involving Gandharvas, where they are often possessed to convey divine knowledge or participate in ritualistic exchanges.
5) Possession:
The act of a spirit, such as a Gandharva, taking control of a person, typically women, often resulting in divine revelations or knowledge transmission.
6) Soma:
A sacred plant and its juice used in Vedic rituals, guarded by Gandharvas in the heavens and central to Vedic mythology.
7) Spirit Possession:
Refers to spirits like Gandharvas or apsarases taking control over individuals, often causing physical or mental changes, believed to result in esoteric knowledge.
8) Sabha:
A male-exclusive assembly hall in Vedic times, often the setting for activities like gambling, feasting, and ritualistic practices related to young men and Gandharvas.
9) Initiation:
Rituals marking the transition stages in a person's life, where Gandharvas might be invoked for blessings, protection, or as intermediaries.
10) Gandhabba:
Pali term for Gandharva, found in Buddhist texts describing beings necessary for the conception of life, sometimes interpreted as intermediary spirits.
11) India:
The origin of Vedic culture and texts, where myths and rituals involving Gandharvas play an important role in religious practices.
12) Vishvavasu (Visvavasu):
A specific Gandharva in Vedic mythology, associated with marriage rites and the possession of brides before they join their husbands.
13) Apsaras (Apsara, Ap-sara):
Singular of apsarases, female spirits associated with water, beauty, and erotic pleasure, often involved in relationships with gods and mortals.
14) Womb:
In Vedic myths, it can refer to the physical womb or a cosmic place where divine beings like Gandharvas interact with human life and procreation.
15) Heaven:
The realm where Gandharvas reside, guarding sacred substances like soma and descending to earth to impart knowledge or interfere with human affairs.
16) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
Refers to terms like Gandhabba, showing how Vedic concepts like Gandharvas were integrated and transformed in Buddhist literature and beliefs.
17) Nature:
Pertains to the characteristics and functions of the Gandharvas and apsarases, such as guardianship, mediation, and involvement in fertility and knowledge.
18) Grihyasutra (Grhyasutra):
Texts that deal with domestic rituals and rites of passage in Vedic Hinduism, where Gandharvas like Viśvāvasu appear in marriage ceremonies.
19) Knowledge:
Divine or esoteric wisdom often imparted by Gandharvas during possession of women or through myths where they act as intermediaries.
20) Night:
A crucial time in Vedic rituals and myths when Gandharvas might be invoked, possesses women, or interfere in marriage rites.
21) Brahmana:
Prose texts explaining Vedic rituals and hymns, often containing stories about Gandharvas' interactions with gods and humans.
22) Marriage:
A significant rite of passage involving Gandharvas in Vedic rituals, who are believed to preside over and bless the union of bride and groom.
23) Sex (Sexual):
Describes the inherent nature of Gandharvas and apsarases, who are often associated with eroticism, procreation, and causing desires during possessions.
24) House:
Refers to the 'men's house' (sabhā) where young men gathered, analogous to the habitat of celestial beings like Gandharvas.
25) Brahmin:
Priests who interact with Gandharvas in Vedic rituals and myths, often receiving esoteric knowledge or guidance from these celestial beings.
26) Book:
Refers to various Vedic texts, including Brāhmaṇas and Upaniṣads, that contain narratives and rituals involving Gandharvas.
27) Mythology:
The body of myths involving Gandharvas, apsarases, gods, and mortals, as found in Vedic texts such as the Rig-Veda and Brāhmaṇas.
28) Practice:
Refers to the ritualistic actions in Vedic culture, such as sacrifices and ceremonies, involving Gandharvas and apsarases.
29) Vratya:
Members of ancient Indian sodalities associated with Gandharvas, who performed important Vedic rituals and were linked to the sabhā.
30) Maiden:
Young girls who perform rituals and are often possessed by Gandharvas, transitioning from unmarried life to marriage under divine influence.
31) Deity (Deities):
A collective term for various gods, goddesses, and celestial spirits in Vedic mythology, including Gandharvas and apsarases.
32) Birth:
A process often supervised by Gandharvas in Vedic myths, where they play a role in procreation and placing embryos in wombs.
33) Literature:
Refers to Vedic texts, including hymns and myths, that document the roles and stories of Gandharvas and apsarases in ancient Indian culture.
34) Sacrifice:
A key aspect of Vedic rituals where Gandharvas might be invoked or play roles, especially in soma rituals and other sacred ceremonies.
35) Yama:
A deity in Vedic mythology, sometimes interacting with Gandharvas, especially in myths concerning death and the afterlife.
36) Pururavas:
A mortal king in a Vedic myth who marries the apsaras Urvaśī and faces trials involving Gandharvas' jealousy and celestial rules.
37) Draupadi:
A princess in the Mahābhārata who uses the threat of her Gandharva husbands to protect herself from unwanted advances.
38) Pururava:
Alternate name for Purūravas, the king who marries the apsaras Urvaśī and experiences the complexities of human-divine relationships.
39) Delhi:
Location of modern institutions and publishers that produce works on Vedic literature and Gandharva mythology.
40) Vedic text:
Any ancient scripture from the Vedic tradition that contains hymns, rituals, and myths involving Gandharvas.
41) Earth:
The realm where Gandharvas descend to interact with humans, impart wisdom, or influence events in Vedic myths.
42) Mind:
Gandharvas can influence or possess human minds, causing madness or revealing divine knowledge through possession.
43) Religion:
Pertains to the Vedic religious practices and beliefs involving Gandharvas and apsarases in rituals, myths, and spiritual lore.
44) Nikaya (Nikâya):
A collection of Buddhist scriptures where Gandharvas, referred to as Gandhabba, appear and play roles in the teachings.
45) Indra (Imdra):
A major deity in Vedic mythology who often interacts with Gandharvas, typically in contests for soma or divine knowledge.
46) King:
Figures like Purūravas in Vedic myths who have interactions or conflicts with Gandharvas and apsarases.
47) Discussion:
Refers to the philosophical and ritualistic debates in Vedic literature where divine beings like Gandharvas might be invoked.
48) Urvashi (Urvasi):
An apsaras in Vedic myth who marries the mortal king Purūravas and is involved in narratives concerning Gandharvas' jealousy.
49) Epic:
Refers to grand narrative texts like the Mahābhārata, where tales of Gandharvas and their interactions with humans are common.
50) Student:
Young Vedic initiates who might invoke Gandharvas during rituals or be influenced by these celestial beings in their learning phases.
51) Music:
An art form associated with Gandharvas, known for their musical skills, often in the context of divine or celestial enjoyment.
52) Demon:
Spirits like Gandharvas that might be considered malevolent when causing madness or misfortune through possession.
53) Human:
Mortals who interact with Gandharvas and apsarases in Vedic mythology, often leading to beneficial or adverse outcomes.
54) Yami (Yamin):
In Vedic mythology, the sister of Yama, sometimes mentioned in discussions about divine relationships and cosmic principles involving Gandharvas.
55) Pali (Palin):
A canonical language in which Buddhist texts like the Nikāyas refer to Gandharvas as Gandhabbas.
56) Hair:
Long hair is a distinguishing feature of Gandharvas and often symbolizes youth, beauty, or esoteric knowledge in Vedic rituals.
57) Sanskrit:
The ancient language in which Vedic texts, including those describing Gandharvas and apsarases, are written.
58) Family:
Refers to relationships and lineage themes in Vedic myths where Gandharvas play roles in marriage and procreation.
59) Indian:
Pertains to the cultural and religious context of India, where Vedic myths and rituals involving Gandharvas originated.
60) Young men (Young man):
Often depicted in Vedic texts as being under the influence or protection of Gandharvas, especially in rites of passage like initiation.
61) Prostitute:
In Vedic and later literature, apsarases are compared to courtesans due to their promiscuity and interaction with young men or Gandharvas.
62) Samhita:
A collection of hymns and rituals in the Vedas where the roles and stories of celestial beings like Gandharvas are detailed.
63) Speech:
In Vedic myths, the goddess of speech (Vāc) is sometimes bartered by gods and Gandharvas, representing sacred knowledge and divine utterances.
64) Asita (Ashita):
Refers to Asita Devala, a seer in Buddhist texts discussing conception where Gandharvas play a role in the transmission of life.
65) Keshin (Kesin):
A sage associated with long hair, linked to Gandharvas in Vedic myths, and sometimes regarded as a shamanic figure.
66) Power:
Gandharvas possess power over procreation, sacred wisdom, and influence through possession in Vedic and later texts.
67) Light:
Gandharvas, especially in their celestial form, are associated with heavenly light or the transfer of divine radiance to the earth.
68) Agni:
The fire god in Vedic mythology often invoked in rituals where Gandharvas also play roles in transferring sacred aspects like soma.
69) Tree:
Gandharvas and apsarases are sometimes depicted living in or associated with trees, symbols of fertility and life in Vedic myths.
70) Enjoyment:
Many Vedic myths describe Gandharvas indulging in physical and sensual enjoyment, particularly with apsarases or mortal women.
71) Singing:
A talent often attributed to Gandharvas, who are celestial musicians in Vedic mythology, associated with divine harmony and joy.
72) Doubt:
In Vedic discussions, doubts about the nature and actions of Gandharvas often arise, requiring clarification through rituals or divine insights.
73) Love:
In myths, Gandharvas often represent divine lovers engaged in love affairs with apsarases or influencing human emotions and unions.
74) Dead:
Gandharvas may interact with the souls of deceased individuals or play roles in Vedic afterlife beliefs, guiding or safeguarding them.
75) Pleasure:
Celestial beings like Gandharvas are often engaged in pleasurable activities, including music, dance, and erotic relationships, reflecting their indulgent nature.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 88]