Historical sequence of the Vaiṣṇava Divyadeśas. Sacred venues of Viṣṇuism
Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: Historical sequence of the Vaiṣṇava Divyadeśas. Sacred venues of Viṣṇuism
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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R.K.K. Rajarajan
Acta Orientalia:
(Founded in 1922 and published annually)
Full text available for: Historical sequence of the Vaiṣṇava Divyadeśas. Sacred venues of Viṣṇuism
Year: 2013 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.4468
Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0
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Summary of article contents:
Introduction
The paper, authored by R.K.K. Rajarajan, examines the historical sequence of the Vaiṣṇava Divyadeśas—sacred sites of worship dedicated to Viṣṇu—drawing upon primary sources from the Tamil tradition, particularly the hymns of the Āḻvārs. Expanding upon previous scholarly efforts on the Śaiva tiruttalams, it presents a much-needed analysis of the evolution of these sacred venues from the 4th to the 9th centuries CE. The study highlights the dynamic changes in temple architecture and worship practices over time, while addressing some contentious viewpoints among scholars regarding original sources.
Historical Evolution of the Divyadeśas
The paper identifies a sequence in the establishment of the 108 Divyadeśas, which are believed to have ripened into their present form by the early 9th century. Key sites such as Māliruñcōlai, Araṅkam (Śrīraṅgam), Vēṅkaṭam (Tirupati), and Āṭakamāṭam play significant roles in this development. Rajarajan illustrates that expansions and modifications to the temples have rendered today's structures substantially different from those known to the Āḻvārs. Areas previously unidentifiable have become recognized sacred spaces, pointing to both actual historical sites and the sometimes imagined landscapes of the Āḻvārs' poetic expressions.
Distinction Between Viṣṇuism and Śrīvaiṣṇavism
A critical differentiation is made between Viṣṇuism as a religion focusing on Viṣṇu himself and Śrīvaiṣṇavism, which arose as a philosophical interpretation after Rāmānuja in the 12th century. Rajarajan notes that while Viṣṇuism promotes a direct devotion to Viṣṇu, Śrīvaiṣṇavism integrates the concept of grace (Śrī) as a mediating force. He critiques the American scholarly interpretations of these traditions, emphasizing that the Āḻvārs' hymns predate this philosophical framework and should not be categorized as Śrīvaiṣṇava.
The Role of the Āḻvārs in Devotional Literature
Rajarajan discusses the Āḻvārs as central figures in the Tamil devotional movement, who immortalized their experiences and reverence for Viṣṇu through their hymns. Each of the twelve Āḻvārs is linked to particular sites, acting both as pilgrims and poets—composing 1,100 hymns that articulate deep emotional connections with the divine. The paper elaborates that their verses do not merely serve as poetic expressions but encapsulate the devotional geography that has influenced historical and cultural contexts within the region.
Sacred Geography Versus Myth
The paper addresses the debate over whether the Āḻvārs' references represent a “landscape of myth” or an actual “historical geography”. Rajarajan argues for a reading of the hymns as grounded in historical realities, as all 108 Divyadeśas still exist today, thereby affirming their rootedness in tangible locations rather than being purely imaginative constructs. The evolution and modifications of these sites over several centuries further reinforce the idea of sacred geography that the Āḻvārs navigated and chronicled, establishing a continuity of worship from their time to the present.
Conclusion
In summary, Rajarajan's work serves to deepen our understanding of the Vaiṣṇava Divyadeśas through a rigorous historical and textual analysis. By situating the Divyadeśas within the broader context of Tamil literature and religious practices, he asserts the importance of the Āḻvārs not only as devotees but as pivotal to the establishment of a sacred geography that has been continually transformed. The paper ultimately emphasizes the need for scholars to approach Tamil devotional traditions with an appreciation for both their historical foundations and spiritual significance, paving the way for comprehensive future studies in Indian religious history.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What are the Vaiṣṇava divyadeśas?
The Vaiṣṇava divyadeśas, or sacred venues of Viṣṇuism, are 108 sacred sites. They were established and celebrated in the hymns of twelve Āḻvārs, mystics of Tamil Nadu, and reflect the devotion towards Lord Viṣṇu.
When did the divyadeśas originate?
The historical origins of the divyadeśas date back to the 4th or 5th century CE, reaching a mature form by the early 9th century CE, as noted in the hymns of the Āḻvārs.
Who were the Āḻvārs?
The Āḻvārs were Tamil mystics and poet-saints devoted to Lord Viṣṇu. They composed hymns that extolled the divyadeśas and spread the Viṣṇu cult across Tamil Nadu.
What influenced the evolution of divyadeśas?
The evolution of the divyadeśas was influenced by historical, cultural, and religious developments. Changes in temple structures and the geographical spread of worship played significant roles.
What distinguishes Viṣṇuism from Śrīvaiṣṇavism?
Viṣṇuism is the broader religious tradition centered on Lord Viṣṇu as a deity. Śrīvaiṣṇavism, developed later, emphasizes philosophical interpretations, including the importance of grace (Śrī) associated with the Lord.
What is the significance of the 108 divyadeśas?
The significance of the 108 divyadeśas lies in their representation of sacred spaces where devotees can engage in worship and pilgrimage, forming a crucial aspect of Vaishnavite tradition.
How are the divyadeśas geographically distributed?
The divyadeśas are distributed across various regions in India, primarily concentrated in Tamil Nadu, including categories like Malaināṭu, Pāṇḍināṭu, and Cōḻanāṭu.
What role do the hymns of the Āḻvārs play?
The hymns of the Āḻvārs serve as essential spiritual texts, celebrating divyadeśas and themselves as pathways, guiding devotees through devotional practices and understanding of the divine.
How have temples changed over time?
Temples designated as divyadeśas have undergone significant architectural changes throughout history, reflecting evolving religious practices and cultural influences, with many now containing structures from later periods.
Glossary definitions and references:
Oriental and Historical glossary list for “Historical sequence of the Vaiṣṇava Divyadeśas. Sacred venues of Viṣṇuism”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
1) Temple:
In Hinduism, a temple is a religious structure that serves as a site of worship. Temples like those at Tirupati and Tirumala undergo significant developments, often becoming large and intricate complexes over time.
2) Alvar (Arvar, Alwar):
The Āḻvārs are Tamil poet-saints dedicated to the worship of Viṣṇu. Their hymns extol the glory of Viṣṇu's various forms and sacred spaces, known as Divyadeśas.
3) Divyadesha (Divyadesa, Divya-desha):
A Divyadeśa is a sacred abode or temple dedicated to Viṣṇu, praised in the hymns of the Āḻvārs. There are 108 traditional Divyadeśas.
4) Vaishnava (Vaisnava):
Vaiṣṇava refers to the followers of Viṣṇuism, a tradition in Hinduism that worships Viṣṇu as the supreme deity. Āḻvārs were prominent saints in the Vaiṣṇava tradition.
5) Vishnu (Visnu):
Viṣṇu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, known as the preserver and protector of the universe. He is commonly worshipped in temples referred to as Divyadeśas.
6) Rajarajan (Rajan-rajan):
R.K.K. Rajarajan is a scholar who has contributed extensively to the study of Vaiṣṇava temples and Divyadeśas in Tamil Nadu, India.
7) Tamil:
Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and parts of Sri Lanka. The Āḻvārs composed their hymns in Tamil.
8) Kshetra (Ksetra):
Kṣetra refers to a sacred space or field, particularly in Hinduism. Temples like those in the study are often considered Kṣetras.
9) Sthala:
Sthala, in Hindu context, means a sacred place or space associated with a deity, often linked to various legends and myths. Divyadeśas are considered sacred Sthalas.
10) Tirumala (Thirumala):
Tirumala refers to the sacred hills in Andhra Pradesh, India, home to the famous Tirupati temple, a major Divyadeśa dedicated to Lord Viṣṇu.
11) Venkatam:
Vēṅkaṭam, or Tirupati, is a key Vaishnava pilgrimage site renowned for its temple dedicated to Lord Venkateswara, a form of Viṣṇu.
12) Arankam:
Araṅkam, also known as Srirangam, is one of the 108 Divyadeśas. It hosts the famous Ranganathaswamy temple.
13) Parkatal:
Pāṟkaṭal, or the Ocean of Milk, is a mythical place in Hindu cosmology where Lord Viṣṇu is believed to recline on the serpent Ananta.
14) India:
India is the country where these sacred Vaiṣṇava temples, known as Divyadeśas, are primarily located.
15) Antal (Andal):
Āṇṭāḷ is the only female Āḻvār among the twelve, known for her profound hymns such as Tiruppāvai, which express deep devotion to Viṣṇu.
16) Cave:
Cave temples, like those in Āṉaimalai, are part of the early architectural tradition in Indian temple history, sometimes serving as early forms of Divyadeśas.
17) Allikkeni:
[see source text or glossary: Allikkēṇi]
18) Kanci (Kamci):
Kāñci, or Kanchipuram, is one of the significant ancient cities housing several Divyadeśas, including the famous Vaikunta Perumal Temple.
19) Delhi:
Delhi, the capital city of India, though mentioned in various contexts, is not particularly known for Divyadeśas.
20) Periyalvar:
Periyāḻvār is one of the twelve Āḻvārs, deeply devoted to Viṣṇu. His hymns are significant components of the Nālāyira Divya Prabandham.
21) Desha (Desa):
Deśa means 'region' or 'place.' In the context of the Divyadeśas, it refers to the sacred places dedicated to Viṣṇu described by the Āḻvārs.
22) Maliruncolai:
Māliruñcōlai is a significant Divyadeśa located near Madurai, praised in both early and later Tamil literature.
23) Indian:
The term refers to anything related to India, including its diverse religious traditions, languages, and cultural practices.
24) King:
Kings often played a role in the construction and patronage of these temples. For example, Nandivarman II of the Pallava dynasty was associated with several Divyadeśas.
25) House:
Temples are often referred to as the house or abode of the deity they are dedicated to, such as Viṣṇu in Vaishnava temples.
26) Ocean:
In Hindu mythology, the Ocean, particularly the Ocean of Milk (Pāṟkaṭal), is where Viṣṇu reclines, embodying cosmic order and sustenance.
27) Devi:
Devī refers to goddess. In the context of Vaishnavism, Śri Devī and Bhū Devī are considered consorts of Viṣṇu.
28) Nankur:
[see source text or glossary: Nāṅkūr]
29) Shiva (Siva):
Śiva is another principal deity in Hinduism between whom and Viṣṇu the followers sometimes engage in sectarian rivalry.
30) Rock:
Rock-cut temples are an early form of sacred architecture in South India, some of which are considered Divyadeśas.
31) Gate:
[see source text or glossary: Vaikuṇṭha]
32) Pallava:
The Pallavas were a South Indian dynasty known for their patronage of Hindu temples, including some that became Divyadeśas.
33) Chennai:
Chennai is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, India. It is near several Divyadeśas, including Tiruvallikeni.
34) Perumal:
Perumāḷ is a Tamil term used to refer to Viṣṇu; several Divyadeśas bear this term in their names.
35) Image:
Images or idols (mūrtis) of deities like Viṣṇu are the focal points of worship in Hindu temples.
36) Tiruvaymoli:
Tiruvāymoḻi is a collection of hymns composed by Nammāḻvār, one of the twelve Āḻvārs, extolling the glory of Viṣṇu.
37) Nammalvar:
Nammāḻvār is one of the most prominent Āḻvārs whose hymns, like the Tiruvāymoḻi, are central to Vaishnava devotion.
38) Tirupati (Thirupati, Tiruppati):
Tirupati, home to the Venkateswara Temple, is one of the most famous Divyadeśas and a major pilgrimage site in India.
39) Pandya (Pamdya, Pandyan):
The Pāṇḍya dynasty was one of the major ancient Tamil dynasties known for their patronage of temples.
40) Vehka:
[see source text or glossary: Veḥkā]
41) Cola:
The Cōḻas were a prominent South Indian dynasty noted for their patronage of Hindu temples, many of which are Divyadeśas.
42) Vijayanagara (Vijaya-nagara):
The Vijayanagara Empire was known for its grand temples and patronage of the arts, including renovations or constructions of Divyadeśas.
43) Kulacēkarar (Kulacekarar):
Kulacēkarar was one of the twelve Āḻvārs, known for his deep devotion to Viṣṇu and his compositions in the Nālāyira Divya Prabandham.
44) Anantapuram (Ananta-puram):
Aṉantapuram, modern-day Trivandrum, is recognized as one of the sacred Divyadeśas.
45) Ramanuja (Rama-anuja):
Rāmānuja was a key theologian and philosopher in the Śrīvaiṣṇava tradition, whose teachings helped formalize the tradition.
46) Mandapa (Mamdapa):
A maṇḍapa is a pillared hall or pavilion in a temple, used for various purposes, including rituals and ceremonies.
47) Vaishnavism (Vaisnavism):
Vaiṣṇavism, or Viṣṇuism, is a tradition of Hinduism that worships Viṣṇu as the supreme deity, with Divyadeśas being central places of worship.
48) Paripatal (Paripadal, Paripaadal):
Paripāṭal is an ancient Tamil literary work that contains references to certain divyadeśas, including Māliruñcōlai.
49) Tamilnadu (Tamil-nadu):
Tamil Nadu is an Indian state with a rich Vaiṣṇava tradition, housing many of the 108 Divyadeśas.
50) Kottiyur:
[see source text or glossary: Kōṭṭiyūr]
51) Kutantai:
[see source text or glossary: Kuṭantai]
52) Sharada (Sarada, Sara-da):
Sharada Publishing House is one of the publishers contributing to literature on Divyadeśas and Vaiṣṇava tradition.
53) Bhakti:
Bhakti refers to devotional worship and love towards a deity, prominently featured in the hymns of the Āḻvārs.
54) Gopura (Go-pura):
A gopura is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of a temple, prominent in South Indian temple architecture.
55) Nayaka:
Nāyaka refers to both a patronage dynasty in South India known for their temple construction, and also a term meaning leader or hero.
56) Meyyam:
[see source text or glossary: Meyyam]
57) Shrine:
A shrine is a holy place dedicated to a specific deity, and in the context of Divyadeśas, it is where Viṣṇu is enshrined.
58) Cult:
Cult in this context refers to the ritualistic and devotional practices dedicated to worshiping Viṣṇu in his various forms.
59) Tontaratippoti:
[see source text or glossary: Toṇṭaraṭippoṭi]
60) Kannapuram (Kanna-puram):
[see source text or glossary: Kaṇṇapuram]
61) Maturakavi (Matura-kavi):
Maturakavi is one of the twelve Āḻvārs known particularly for his devotion to Nammāḻvār rather than to Viṣṇu directly.
62) Pandinatu (Pandinadu, Pandi-natu, Pandi-nadu):
Pāṇḍināṭu refers to the region traditionally ruled by the Pāṇḍya dynasty, which contains several important Divyadeśas.
63) Malainatu (Malainadu, Malai-nadu, Malai-natu):
Malaināṭu, or the Hill Country, includes regions like Kerala and is home to several Divyadeśas.
64) Balibera (Bali-bera):
Balibera refers to the festival image used during rituals and processions, like those in the temple of Tirupati/Tirumala.
65) Patakam:
[see source text or glossary: Pāṭakam]
66) Tankal:
[see source text or glossary: Taṇkāl]
67) Poykai:
Poykai is one of the three earliest Āḻvārs, who composed Tamil hymns in praise of Viṣṇu.
68) Shaiva (Saiva):
Śaiva refers to the tradition of Hinduism that worships Śiva as the supreme deity, often in sectarian competition with Vaiṣṇavism.
69) Poem:
[see source text or glossary: Poem]
70) Milk:
In Hindu mythology, the Ocean of Milk (Pāṟkaṭal) is the cosmic ocean where Viṣṇu reclines on the serpent Ananta.
71) Parameccuravinnakaram (Parameccura-vinnakaram):
[see source text or glossary: Paramēccuraviṇṇakaram]
72) Silappadikaram (Silappatikaram, Cilappatikaram):
Cilappatikāram is an ancient Tamil epic that mentions several Divyadeśas, including Māliruñcōlai and Araṅkam.
73) Kacci-Attikiri:
[see source text or glossary: Kacci-Attikiri]
74) Mamallapuram (Mamallapura, Mamalla-pura):
Māmallapuram, also known as Mahabalipuram, is known for its rock-cut and structural temples, but not all are Divyadeśas.
75) Vatamaturai (Vata-maturai):
[see source text or glossary: Vaṭamaturai]
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 123]