Antiquity of the divyakṣetras in Pāṇḍināḍu
Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: Antiquity of the divyakṣetras in Pāṇḍināḍu
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
This page presents a generated summary with additional references; See source (below) for actual content.
Original source:
This page is merely a summary which is automatically generated hence you should visit the source to read the original article which includes the author, publication date, notes and references.
R.K.K Rajarajan
Acta Orientalia:
(Founded in 1922 and published annually)
Full text available for: Antiquity of the divyakṣetras in Pāṇḍināḍu
Year: 2012 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.4840
Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0
Download the PDF file of the original publication
Summary of article contents:
Introduction
The article delves into the significance and antiquity of the divyakṣetras (sacred shrines) dedicated to Viṣṇu in the Pāṇḍināḍu region, primarily through the hymns of the Tamil mystics known as the Āḻvārs. The Nālāyirativviyapirapantam, a collection of hymns, enumerates 108 sacred sites in the Indian subcontinent, with 18 located in Pāṇḍya country. The text explores these shrines' historical and cultural relevance, their ecological settings, and the influence of earlier Vedic and Sanskritic literature, alongside the adaptations made by the Āḻvārs to resonate with local traditions.
Evolution of the Viṣṇu Cult
One important concept highlighted is the evolution of the Viṣṇu cult within the framework of Tamil devotional literature. The article establishes that the Āḻvārs played a crucial role in shaping the Vaiṣṇava bhakti movement through their hymns, which blend earlier religious ideas with Tamil cultural elements. Dating the Āḻvārs between the 5th and 9th centuries CE, it discusses how their collective works reflect a continuity of devotional practice that may have roots in earlier Tamil literature, such as the Paripāṭal, suggesting a long-standing tradition of bhakti in Tamil Nadu influenced by a variety of historical and mythical narratives concerning the divine.
The Sacred Geography of Pāṇḍināḍu
Another key point is the sacred geography of Pāṇḍināḍu and the significance of its divyakṣetras. The article elucidates the theological and cultural dimensions of the 18 sacred sites specified in the Nālāyiram, underscoring how the Āḻvārs portrayed these locations as not just physical spaces but as divine abodes teeming with ecological and spiritual richness. It presents a clear delineation of these sacred spaces based on their geographical attributes and the corresponding local legends and rituals that infused them with their sacred status, substantiated by archaeological findings and textual references.
The Role of Ecology in Devotion
The prominence of ecological descriptions within the hymns sheds light on another vital concept: the link between nature and divinity as expressed in the writings of the āḻvārs. The article discusses how the Āḻvārs celebrated the natural world—its flora, fauna, and landscapes—asserting that these elements not only enhanced the beauty of each divyakṣetra but were also integral to the worship of Viṣṇu. This connection between the sacred and the environmental situates the cult of Viṣṇu within a framework of holistic reverence for nature, demonstrating how ecological appreciation was intrinsic to the Tamil devotional experience.
Transformation of Worship Practices
Next, the article addresses the transformations in worship practices and temple architecture over the centuries. It tracks the changes from the initial rock-cut temples to later structural styles, highlighting how the images and symbolism within these temples evolved in response to shifting devotional needs and socio-political factors. For instance, the stānakas (standing forms) of the divine were often influenced by royal patronage and local customs, leading to a fascinating interplay between artistry, spirituality, and community identity in the growth of these sacred shrines.
The Influence of Cultural Adaptation
Additionally, the article discusses the cultural adaptations present in the Āḻvārs' hymns, illustrating how the Āḻvārs reinterpreted existing Vedic and Sanskritic narratives to make them accessible and relevant to the Tamil populace. This syncretic approach not only enriched Tamil literature but also fostered a deep-rooted cultural identity among the adherents of Viṣṇu worship in Tamil Nadu. It emphasizes the role of the Āḻvārs in democratizing spirituality, allowing various social classes, including non-Brahmins, to partake in the devotional traditions, fostering a sense of community and shared divine grace.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the article portrays the divyakṣetras in Pāṇḍināḍu as vital components of Tamil spiritual life, intricately connected to the history, ecology, and socio-cultural dynamics of the region. By analyzing the works of the Āḻvārs, it becomes evident that these sacred sites were not merely places of worship but were interwoven into the fabric of Tamil identity and devotion. Moreover, the study invites further contemplation on how Tamil devotional practices persist and evolve, aligning with broader trends in Indian sacred geography and spirituality.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What are the divyadeśas listed by the Āḻvārs?
The Āḻvārs extol 108 sacred venues, known as divyadeśas, dedicated to Viṣṇu across the Indian subcontinent. They classify these locations into geographical segments, with 18 situated in the Pāṇḍya region.
What important themes are covered in the Āḻvārs' hymns?
Their hymns encompass details on mūrti (idol), tīrtha (sacred water), local ecology, landscape, flora, fauna, as well as associated mythologies, rituals (pūjās), and festivals (utsavas) related to Viṣṇu.
How did the Āḻvārs adapt existing themes to local culture?
The Āḻvārs incorporated elements from the Vedas and purāṇas, reinterpreting them in a Tamil context to resonate with local cultural traditions and beliefs, tailoring worship practices to meet regional sentiments.
Which centuries did the Āḻvārs influence Tamil literature?
The Āḻvārs significantly influenced Tamil literature from the 6th to the 9th century, creating a lasting legacy in devotional poetry that shaped the Tamil Vaishnavite tradition.
What is the significance of the Nālāyirativviyapirapantam?
The Nālāyirativviyapirapantam is a collection of hymns by the Āḻvārs that detail the praise and significance of 108 divyadeśas, which are central to Tamil Vaishnavism.
Which Āḻvār mentioned the sacred location Māliruñcōlai?
Māliruñcōlai is extolled by Periyāḻvār in his hymns, celebrating its beauty, ecological richness, and the divine presence of Viṣṇu, reflecting the significance of the site in Tamil devotional practices.
How many Āḻvārs sang praises of Pāṇḍināḍu?
Among the twelve Āḻvārs, seven specifically sang praises about the divyadeśas located in Pāṇḍināḍu, contributing to the recognition of these sacred sites.
What are the characteristics of the temples in Pāṇḍināḍu?
Temples in Pāṇḍināḍu feature specific architectural styles, with mūrti representations, rituals, and a historical evolution influenced by various dynasties from the early medieval period to the 18th century.
What role did ecological descriptions play in the hymns?
The ecological descriptions in the hymns emphasize the natural beauty surrounding the divyadeśas, linking the divine with the environment. They reflect the ecological awareness and cultural identity of the Tamil people.
Glossary definitions and references:
Oriental and Historical glossary list for “Antiquity of the divyakṣetras in Pāṇḍināḍu”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
1) Temple:
A Temple, as described in the text, refers to centers of worship of Viṣṇu, known as divyadeśas, each having significant historical, cultural, and spiritual significance. Notable temples discussed include Māliruñcōlai and Kūṭal Aḻakar temple, each associated with intricate rituals and festivals
2) Alvar (Arvar, Alwar):
Āḻvār refers to the twelve Tamil Vaiṣṇava mystics who authored hymns extolling Viṣṇu and his divyadeśas. They are deeply immersed in the love of Viṣṇu and consider themselves as the Lord’s aṅgas. Seven of them particularly celebrated the divyadeśas in Pāṇḍināḍu
3) Sthanaka:
Sthānaka is a term mentioned in the text referring to one of the three primary stances of deities in the temples, specifically indicating a standing posture. Several Mūlaberas (primary deities) in the divyadeśas are described in this stance
4) Rajarajan (Rajan-rajan):
R.K.K. Rajarajan is the author of the provided text, who conducted a detailed study on the antiquity of Vaiṣṇava divyakṣetras in the Pāṇḍināḍu region. His work includes analysis of the hymns by Āḻvārs, historical developments, and iconographic details
5) Mulabera (Mula-bera):
Mūlabera refers to the main deities enshrined in the temples. These deities are described in various stances such as sthānaka (standing), āsana (sitting), and sayana (reclining), each carrying specific cultural and religious significances
6) Tamil:
Tamil is the language in which the Āḻvārs composed their hymns, known for its rich literature and cultural heritage. The Tamil Vedas, Nālāyirativviyappirapantam, hold a significant place in Tamil Vaiṣṇavism
7) Pandinatu (Pandinadu, Pandi-natu, Pandi-nadu):
Pāṇḍināḍu refers to the region south of the River Kāviri, rich in cultural history and home to 18 sacred venues called divyadeśas. It is highlighted in the hymns of the Āḻvārs who extolled its temples and religious practices
8) Kshetra (Ksetra):
Kṣetra, synonymous with sthala, refers to sacred venues or holy spots of worship. In the text, Pāṇḍināḍu contains several kṣetras recognized for their historic and religious prominence, specifically visited and praised in Āḻvār hymns
9) Vishnu (Visnu):
Viṣṇu is the principal deity revered in the divyadeśas. The hymns by the Āḻvārs extol his virtues, heroic feats, and mythologies associated with him, contributing significantly to Tamil bhakti literature
10) Mamkai (Mankai):
Tirumaṅkai Āḻvār (Maṅkai) is one of the twelve Āḻvārs whose hymns praise several kṣetras. His hymns document early and medieval rock-cut temples and their significance in Pāṇḍināḍu
11) Meyyam:
Meyyam is one of the divyadeśas in Pāṇḍināḍu, noted for its rock-cut temple and sacred significance. The place is highlighted in the hymns of Maṅkai, depicting both reclining and standing images of Viṣṇu
12) Maliruncolai:
Māliruñcōlai, also called Aḻakarkōyil, is one of the prominent divyadeśas in Pāṇḍināḍu. It is extensively praised for its natural beauty and sacred significance in the hymns by Āḻvārs, particularly Periyāḻvār,
13) Sayana (Shayana):
Sayana is one of the three stances of deity representation, specifically representing a reclining posture. It is described multiple times in the text regarding the mūlaberas in rock-cut and structural temples
14) Vaishnava (Vaisnava):
Vaiṣṇava pertains to the worshippers of Viṣṇu and aspects of his cult as elaborated in Tamil bhakti literature and the sacred divyadeśas. The Āḻvārs' hymns play a critical role in Tamil Vaiṣṇava tradition
15) Veda:
Veda, referring to the ancient Sanskrit scriptures, considerably influences Tamil Vaiṣṇava texts and religious practices. The Āḻvārs often invoke Vedic knowledge and themes in their hymns
16) House:
House typically refers to households or places of residence linked to historical and mythological contexts present around divyadeśas, often described as abodes of Viṣṇu in the text
17) Pallantu:
Pallāṇṭu is a significant hymn composed by Periyāḻvār, praising Viṣṇu and seeking his eternal protection for countless years. It is intricately linked to Kūṭal/Maturai
18) Antal (Andal):
Āṇṭāḷ is one of the twelve Āḻvārs, revered for her devotion to Viṣṇu. She composed the Tiruppāvai hymns and envisioned herself as the bride of the deity, central to the cultivation of Vaiṣṇava tradition
19) Paripatal (Paripadal, Paripaadal):
Paripāṭal is an early Tamil literary work, indicating the antiquity of certain divyadeśas like Kuḻantai, evidencing Vaiṣṇava bhakti traditions preceding the Āḻvārs
20) Asana (Ashana):
Āsana describes a sitting posture of deities, one of the three principal stances of representation. Several mūlaberas are described in this posture in divyadeśas such as Cīvaramaṅkai
21) Kutal:
Kūṭal, another name for the city of Maturai, is significant for its ancient temple Kūṭal Aḻakar, praised by the Āḻvārs in their hymns, with notable focus in the Tiruppallāṇṭu hymn by Periyāḻvār
22) Villiputtur:
Villiputtūr is another prominent divyadeśa, home to the hymns composed by Periyāḻvār and Āṇṭāḷ. It houses the temple known for the deity Vatapatrasayi
23) Periyalvar:
Periyāḻvār, one of the twelve Āḻvārs, known for his devotion and the composition of the Pallāṇṭu and several hymns praising Viṣṇu, particularly highlighting locations such as Kūṭal and Villiputtūr
24) Sthala:
Sthala is another term for kṣetra, referring to a sacred location or venue dedicated to divine worship. The text details various sthalas in Pāṇḍināḍu extolled in Āḻvār hymns
25) Vedas:
Vedas are the ancient scriptures pivotal to Hindu religious practices. The Āḻvārs often reference Vedic literature, integrating it with Tamil bhakti traditions
26) Cave:
Cave temples are discussed, particularly highlighting early rock-cut sacred deities in places like Meyyam and Taṇkāl, dating as far back as the 6th century CE
27) Utsavabera (Utsava-bera):
Utsavabera refers to the festival images or processional deities used during religious ceremonies. They are typically in a sthānaka (standing) stance
28) Maturai:
Maturai, also known as Kūṭal, is a prominent cultural hub and location for significant divyadeśas such as the Kūṭal Aḻakar temple, noted extensively in the Āḻvār hymns
29) Shiva (Siva):
Śiva, though primarily a Śaiva deity, frequently features in the Āḻvār hymns as part of the mythological and religious context, indicating the syncretic interplay in Tamil religious traditions
30) Bhakti:
Bhakti revolves around intense devotion to a deity, a central theme in Āḻvār literature, particularly focusing on their devotion to Viṣṇu within the Tamil Vaiṣṇava tradition
31) Tankal:
Taṇkāl is one of the divyadeśas mentioned in the hymns by Pūtam and Maṅkai with a significant early rock-cut cave temple featuring reclining images of Viṣṇu
32) Image:
Image refers to representations of deities in various stances (āyana, sthānaka, sayana). The text details such images in divyadeśas and their significance in temple worship
33) Varakunamankai (Varakuna-mankai):
Varakuṇamaṅkai is one of the sacred divyadeśas, noted in the hymns by Nammāḻvār, represented primarily in the seated (āsana) posture
34) Literature:
Literature in the text refers to both Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures and hymns by the Āḻvārs, which play a pivotal role in the religious and cultural heritage of divyadeśas
35) Vaikuntam:
Vaikuṇṭam or Śrīvaikuṇṭham is a significant divyadeśa referenced by Nammāḻvār where the deity is described in a standing (sthānaka) posture
36) Flower:
Flower symbolizes nature, ecological settings, and beauty frequently mentioned in Āḻvār hymns describing the surroundings of the divyadeśas
37) Putam:
Pūtam refers to Pūtattāṉ, one of the twelve Āḻvārs, who authored hymns extolling divyadeśas, contributing to Tamil bhakti literature
38) Divyadesha (Divyadesa, Divya-desha):
Divyadeśas are the 108 sacred venues revered in Tamil Vaiṣṇavism, praised in Āḻvār hymns, categorized across various regions such as Pāṇḍināḍu, Cōḻanāḍu, and others
39) Venkatam:
Vēṅkaṭam, known today as Tirupati, is highlighted as one of the earliest Vaiṣṇava divyadeśas, dating back to early centuries BCE, depicting its ancient cult significance
40) Pullani:
Pullāṇi features in the hymns by Maṅkai, highlighting its sacred significance, especially in its ponds and floral richness, represented in the seated posture of Viṣṇu
41) Delhi:
Delhi, mentioned as the headquarters (e.g., Sharada Publishing House) of some of the scholarly works cited in the text related to Hindu iconography and religious studies
42) India:
India, home to these divyadeśas, provides the cultural and religious backdrop to the Vaiṣṇava bhakti traditions discussed extensively by Rajarajan
43) Mokur:
Mōkūr is one of the divyadeśas, noted for the standing posture (sthānaka) of its deity Kāḷamēkap Perumāḷ, elaborated upon in the hymns by Nammāḻvār
44) Tolaivillimankalam (Tolai-villimankalam):
Tolaivillimaṅkalam is a sacred spot praised by Nammāḻvār, known for its mythological significance and deity’s sthānaka (standing) stance in the temple
45) Civaramankai (Civara-mankai):
Cīvaramaṅkai is another divyadeśa, praised for its deity’s āsana (seated) representation, with various ecological and mythological descriptions provided in Nammāḻvār’s hymns
46) Kurunkuti:
Kuṟuṅkuṭi, praised by several Āḻvārs, houses deities in both standing and reclining postures, with beautiful descriptions of its natural settings and mythological lore
47) Pandya (Pamdya, Pandyan):
Pāṇḍya refers to the ruling dynasty under whose reign many of the divyadeśas in Pāṇḍināḍu were developed, celebrated in the hymns by Āḻvārs
48) River:
River Kāviri demarcates the region of Pāṇḍināḍu and is associated with various sacred divyadeśas and ecological richness described in the Āḻvār hymns
49) Rock:
Rock-cut architecture is significant in early sacred spots like Meyyam and Taṇkāl, housing images of Viṣṇu described in the hymns
50) Tamilnadu (Tamil-nadu):
Tamilnadu is the southern Indian state where most divyadeśas are located. The Āḻvārs’ hymn of these locations reflects its deep religious and cultural traditions
51) Praise:
Praise is a central theme in the Āḻvār hymns, extolling Viṣṇu and his dwellings in the divyadeśas, describing their sanctity, beauty, and mythological importance
52) Cult:
Cult refers to various religious traditions and practices associated with the worship of Viṣṇu in the divyadeśas, enriched by the Āḻvār hymns
53) Pulinkuti (Pulinkudi):
Puḷiṅkuṭi is another divyadeśa mentioned in the hymns, known for the reclining (sayana) stance of its deity Viṣṇu, celebrated by Nammāḻvār
54) Kulantai:
Kuḻantai is an ancient divyadeśa whose significance is referenced in both the Paripāṭal and the hymns by Nammāḻvār, featuring natural and mythological imagery
55) Kurukur:
Kurukūr, modern-day Āḻvārtirunakari, is the birthplace of Nammāḻvār, houses the Ādinātha temple, and is praised extensively in the Āḻvār hymns for its divine and natural beauty
56) Brahma:
Brahmā, the creator deity in Hindu mythology, often appears in the Āḻvār’s hymns related to Viṣṇu’s divine narratives and mythological contexts
57) Lotus:
Lotus is frequently mentioned in the Āḻvār hymns symbolizing purity and beauty, common in the descriptions of the divyadeśas' natural scenery
58) Kottiyur:
Kōṭṭiyūr, mentioned in the hymns of several Āḻvārs, features sacred iconography indicative of its ancient and mythological significance
59) Arankam:
Araṅkam, specifically Śrīraṅgam, is extensively praised in the Āḻvār hymns, known for its deep-rooted Vaiṣṇava religious importance and large ceremonial practices
60) Ocean:
Ocean symbolizes divinity and sanctity, frequently appearing in the Āḻvār hymns referring to Pāṟkaṭal, the Ocean of Milk, and the sacred waters around the divyadeśas
61) Kolur:
Kōḷūr, one of the divyadeśas extolled in Āḻvār hymns, known for the sacred reclining image of Viṣṇu, elaborated in natural and mythological details
62) Bird:
Birds, especially those like parrots and peacocks, are part of the ecological descriptions in the Āḻvār hymns, adding to the divine aesthetic of the divyadeśas
63) Indian:
Indian culture provides the backdrop of the Vaiṣṇava traditions depicted in the Āḻvār hymns, highlighting the deep ancient roots of these religious practices