Characteristics of East Asian Meditation

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Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: Characteristics of East Asian Meditation
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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Author:

Halvor Eifring


Acta Orientalia:

(Founded in 1922 and published annually)

Full text available for: Characteristics of East Asian Meditation

Year: 2010 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.5347

Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0


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Summary of article contents:

1. Introduction

This article by Halvor Eifring addresses the diverse characteristics of East Asian meditation in comparison to meditative traditions found globally. It aims to identify what is distinctive about East Asian meditation, to propose a working definition of meditation as a self-administered technique for inner transformation, and to develop a classification of meditation practices based on relevant features. The author notes that, while many forms of East Asian meditation are technical and less devotional than Western forms, they exhibit considerable variation among their sub-traditions, including Daoism, Confucianism, Shintoism, and Buddhism.

2. Definition of Meditation

Eifring proposes a definition of meditation as "a self-administered technique for inner transformation." He emphasizes the importance of technique while suggesting that meditation should lead to long-term changes rather than transient states. This definition diverges from others that might suggest the necessity of specific mental states during meditation. Rather, it allows for a comprehensive view that encompasses a variety of practices aiming for personal transformation, while also distinguishing meditation from relaxation techniques. The article critiques existing definitions and argues that they often lack the needed cultural breadth to apply effectively across different traditions.

3. Classification of Meditation Techniques

The classification of meditation techniques is another central theme of the article. Eifring proposes organizing techniques based on three criteria: location (external vs. internal objects), agency (spontaneous vs. produced objects), and faculty (cognitive vs. sensory objects). He acknowledges that most meditation practices encompass elements from multiple categories and that the choice of meditation object significantly influences the meditative experience. This classification also draws on historical sources, enabling a comparative analysis of how these objects are utilized across different cultural contexts.

4. Historical Development of East Asian Meditation

Eifring outlines the historical development of meditation in East Asia, pinpointing three major periods. The earliest period (first half millennium BC) features a strong focus on self-cultivation, emerging essential terms and practices. The subsequent period (first half millennium AD) sees the significant influence of Indian Buddhism, where meditative techniques were imported into East Asia. The third period, beginning around AD 1000, marks a transition where indigenous forms of meditation, such as “silent illumination” and “keyword meditation” in Chan Buddhism, began to emerge distinctly. These evolutions reflect a complicated interplay between imported and adapted practices, leading to various approaches that are unique to East Asian cultures.

5. The Role of Body and Breath in Meditation

Exploring the physical aspects of meditation, Eifring discusses the prevailing focus on the body and breath across many East Asian meditative practices. He identifies the significant role of breath as both a spontaneous object and an active element manipulated during meditation. These techniques often aim at refining mental functions and achieving psychological and spiritual outcomes. The author distinguishes between body-centric practices in Daoism and the more neutral observation of body and breath seen in non-Tantric Buddhist meditation, highlighting the complexity and diversity of approaches within these traditions.

6. Concepts of Visualisation and Devotion

Visualisation is emphasized as a prominent technique in many meditative traditions, with East Asian practices often linking visualisation to both body and spiritual entities. Daoist visualisation practices aim to connect practitioners with cosmic energies, while non-Tantric Buddhist visualisation concentrates on images of Buddhas and symbols. Devotional meditation, meanwhile, is another crucial aspect, particularly in Buddhism and Daoism, where the focus shifts from technical processes to establishing a relationship with deities or symbols. The distinctions between sensory and cognitive aspects of these practices spotlight the broader variations within East Asian meditation, reflecting both technical and devotional orientations.

7. Conclusion

In conclusion, Eifring's analysis reveals that while East Asian forms of meditation exhibit wide variation, they share common elements with meditative practices worldwide. Techniques surrounding body awareness, visualisation, and devotion show both similarity and divergence with other traditions, highlighting the need for a nuanced understanding of their characteristics. Keyword meditation stands out as a particularly East Asian innovation, employing narrative elements to facilitate deeper insights. Ultimately, the complex interplay of technicality and spirituality in East Asian meditation invites continued exploration and comparison with global meditative practices.

FAQ section (important questions/answers):

What is the primary aim of East Asian meditation?

The primary aim of East Asian meditation is inner transformation, focusing on self-administered techniques that facilitate mental and spiritual growth.

How do East Asian meditation techniques differ from Western practices?

East Asian meditation techniques tend to be more technical and less devotional than Western practices, often emphasizing practical methods over faith-based approaches.

What criteria are used to classify meditation objects?

Meditation objects can be classified based on location (external vs. internal), agency (spontaneous vs. produced), and faculty (cognitive vs. sensory).

What historical periods influenced East Asian meditation development?

East Asian meditation evolved through distinct historical periods: classical thought, Indian Buddhist influence, and the emergence of unique meditative practices in Daoism and Chán Buddhism.

How is the body used in East Asian meditation techniques?

Body and breath are key meditation objects in many East Asian techniques, often linking physical awareness to mental refinement and spiritual practices.

What role does visualisation play in East Asian meditation?

Visualisation is central to many East Asian meditation practices, often used for connecting consciousness with cosmic energies, enhancing the depth of meditation experiences.

Are devotional practices common in East Asian meditation?

Devotional practices exist but are often less technical and more ritualistic compared to other forms of meditation, focusing on establishing relationships with divine entities.

What are key characteristics of keyword meditation?

Keyword meditation uses stories and phrases to create existential doubt, encouraging deeper insights and breaking down habitual cognitive patterns.

Glossary definitions and references:

Oriental and Historical glossary list for “Characteristics of East Asian Meditation”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.

1) Meditation:
Meditation is a self-administered technique for inner transformation, focusing on various forms of awareness, such as body, breath, visualisation, and devotional aspects. It aims at cognitive or sensory engagement to achieve psychological or spiritual change.

2) Practice:
Meditative practices consist of techniques like breathing exercises, mindfulness, visualisation, and the repetition of mantras, with the purpose of mental or spiritual cultivation, and are common in traditions such as Buddhism, Daoism, Yoga, and others.

3) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
Buddhism, a major meditative tradition originating in India, emphasizes mental cultivation through mindfulness, insight meditation, and other practices. East Asian forms include Chán (Zen), Pure Land practices, and visualisation of Buddhas, like Amitābha.

4) Taoism (Taoist tradition, Daoist tradition, Daoism):
Taoist meditation practices encompass techniques like breathing exercises, visualisation of bodily energies, and cosmic journeys. The aim is often physical longevity or spiritual elevation, with methods grounded in the harmony and flow of cosmic energies.

5) Breath:
Breathing is a central element in many meditative practices, used as a spontaneous or produced object of meditation to help achieve mental focus or inner transformation. Techniques include steady awareness of natural breath and controlled breathing patterns.

6) Mind:
The mind is the primary focus in many forms of meditation aimed at refining mental states, achieving inner transformation, or reaching enlightenment. Techniques address cognitive functions, awareness, and intended states of calm or heightened insight.

7) Breathing:
Breathing techniques in meditation involve awareness and control of breath, used in Daoist, Yogic, and Buddhist practices. They range from simple awareness to complex methods like embryonic breathing or heel breathing for life-preserving energy circulation.

8) Tantra (Tamtra, Tantrism):
Tantra includes meditative practices that incorporate ritual, visualisation, and the subtle body. It aims to transform consciousness by focusing on divine energies and often involves complex symbolic systems like mandalas and mantras for spiritual ascent.

9) Buddha:
In Buddhist meditation, the Buddha is often an object of visualisation or devotion. Practices like chanting 'Namo Amitābha Buddha' in Pure Land Buddhism aim to connect with the enlightened qualities of the Buddha for spiritual advancement.

10) External:
External meditation objects are physical or sensory stimuli outside the meditator's body. These can include visual aids like candles or mandalas, and they are commonly used in initial stages of meditation to help focus the practitioner's mind.

11) Indian:
Indian meditative traditions span Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, and include diverse practices like Yoga, mantra repetition, and Tantric rituals. These form the basis of many techniques adopted in East Asian meditations, albeit with regional variations.

12) Sound:
Sound-based meditation focuses on auditory stimuli such as mantras. Indian traditions often use sound for its intrinsic vibrational qualities, while in East Asia, sound has a less central role but is still present in ritualistic chanting and prayers.

13) Prayer:
Prayer overlaps with meditation, especially in devotional practices. In traditions like Christianity, Buddhism, and Shinto, repetitive prayers or mantras invoke spiritual qualities, divine assistance, or connect the meditator with sacred entities.

14) Mindfulness:
Mindfulness (正念) is the practice of present-centered awareness, observing thoughts, sensations, and experiences without judgment. It is central in Buddhist meditation and aims to cultivate a state of calm, clarity, and insight into the nature of existence.

15) Religion:
Religions across Eurasia incorporate meditation practices. Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism, and Shintoism offer structured meditative techniques, while Judaism, Christianity, and Islam incorporate them into prayer and devotional practices, aiming for spiritual growth or enlightenment.

16) Mantra (Mamtra):
A mantra is a repeated phrase or sound used in meditation to focus the mind and induce a meditative state. It is predominantly associated with Hindu, Buddhist, and Sikh meditative practices, acting as both sensory and cognitive anchors.

17) Subtle body:
The subtle body is a concept involving an energy system within the physical body, with structures like chakras (in Yoga) or cinnabar fields (Dāntián in Daoism). It plays a central role in practices aiming at spiritual or longevity-related transformations.

18) Yoga:
Yoga encompasses various meditative and physical practices aimed at unifying body, mind, and spirit. Its meditative aspects include breath control, postures, and concentration techniques, often directed towards attaining physical health and spiritual enlightenment.

19) Devotion (Devoted):
Devotional meditation involves focusing on a deity or sacred figure, often through visualisation, chanting, or prayer. It is prevalent in religious practices like Pure Land Buddhism (chanting Amitābha's name) and Eastern Orthodox Christianity (Jesus prayer).

20) Spiritual:
Spiritual meditation transcends the physical and focuses on inner growth, enlightenment, or connection with the divine. Practices vary widely, including mindfulness, chanting, or visualisation, each tailored to foster a deeper spiritual awareness and transformation.

21) Transformation (Transform, Transforming):
Meditation often aims at inner transformation, causing long-term changes in the practitioner's mental traits. Techniques range from body-awareness exercises to deep visualisation, all designed to bring about a significant psychological or spiritual shift.

22) Image:
Images, whether external visual representations or internal visualisations, are used in meditative practices to focus the mind. Examples include Buddhist visualisation of Buddhas and mandalas in Tantra, where visual objects serve as focal points for deeper meditation.

23) Consciousness:
Consciousness is the focus of many meditative practices aimed at altering perceptions, mental states, or achieving higher awareness. Techniques vary from mindfulness meditation, which involves present-centered awareness, to complex visualisations in Tantric traditions.

24) Confucianism (Confucian tradition):
Confucian meditation practices focus on self-cultivation, ethical living, and moral refinement. Influenced by Daoist and Buddhist methods, techniques may include contemplative reading or meditative sitting, aimed at nurturing virtues and fulfilling social responsibilities.

25) Recitation:
Recitation in meditation entails repeatedly vocalizing a mantra, prayer, or sacred text to focus the mind and invoke spiritual qualities. Common in Hinduism’s japa, Pure Land Buddhism’s Buddha-name recitation, and Christian Eastern Orthodox prayer traditions.

26) Relaxed (Relaxation, Relaxing):
Relaxation is a common element in meditation practices, although not universally essential. Techniques like mindfulness and breath awareness induce states of calm and relaxation, unlike keyword meditation which may initially cause tension but lead to profound calm upon breakthrough.

27) Language:
Language plays a key role in meditation, particularly in practices involving mantras, prayers, or scriptural recitations. Certain traditions prioritize the phonetic purity and pronunciation, while others focus on the semantic meaning of the linguistic content.

28) Exercise:
Physical exercises, such as Yoga postures and Tai Chi, are sometimes included within broader meditative practices to prepare the body and mind for deeper states of meditation by promoting calm, focus, and energy balance.

29) Pure Land:
Pure Land Buddhism includes meditative practices focused on Amitābha Buddha, particularly the devotional repetition of his name (念佛). This form aims at securing rebirth in the Pure Land, seen as a step towards ultimate enlightenment.

30) Amitabha (Amita-abha):
Amitābha Buddha is central to Pure Land Buddhist meditation, where practitioners focus on visualising or reciting his name (Namo Amitābha Buddha) to connect with his qualities and attain rebirth in his Western Pure Land.

31) Yantra (Yamtra):
A yantra is a geometric diagram used in Tantric meditation to focus the mind and represent cosmic principles. Unlike mandalas, they are often more abstract and serve as a visual aid to deepen meditative and spiritual practices.

32) China:
China has a rich history of meditative practices across Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Techniques such as guarding tranquility (守靜), visualisation of cosmic entities, and body-centered exercises are central to Chinese meditation traditions.

33) India:
India is the birthplace of numerous meditative traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Practices such as Yoga, mantra repetition, and Tantric rituals form the foundation of many meditative techniques that spread across Asia.

34) Light:
Visualisation of light is a common meditative practice, particularly in Tantric and Yogic traditions. This can involve focusing on an external light source like a candle and internalizing this visual to aid in concentration and spiritual insight.

35) Realm:
In meditative visualisation practices, realms such as cosmic lands or divine kingdoms are often visualized. Daoism involves cosmic journeys or divine lands, while Pure Land Buddhism visualises the Pure Land of Amitābha Buddha for meditative focus.

36) Enlightenment:
Enlightenment is the ultimate goal in many meditative traditions, including Buddhism, Daoism, and Hinduism. It involves achieving profound insight, liberation from the cycle of rebirth, and a deep understanding of the true nature of existence.

37) Bodhisattva (Bodhisatta, Bodhi-sattva):
In Buddhist meditation, bodhisattvas are often objects of visualisation and devotion. Practices involve meditating on their qualities, reciting their names, or visualising their forms to cultivate compassion and wisdom, aiding in the path to enlightenment.

38) Emptiness:
Emptiness (空) is a concept in Buddhist meditation, referring to the lack of inherent existence in all phenomena. Meditation on emptiness aims to realize the interdependent nature of reality and to transcend attachment and delusion.

39) Sensation:
Sensation plays a role in meditation, particularly in mindfulness practices where awareness is directed to bodily sensations, breath, and sensory experiences. This helps in anchoring the mind, enhancing presence, and cultivating a deep awareness of the physical body.

40) Universe:
Meditative practices often involve connecting with the cosmos or visualising the universe. Daoist visualisation, for instance, can include celestial journeys or alignment of the practitioner’s energies with cosmic forces to achieve spiritual harmony and transformation.

41) Nature:
Nature-focused meditation involves contemplating natural elements or aligning with natural laws. Daoist practices often emphasize harmonizing with nature’s rhythms, while Yogic and Buddhist traditions may include elements of observing natural phenomena mindfully.

42) Doubt:
In keyword meditation, creating a deep sense of doubt (疑情) is central to breaking down cognitive structures and reaching an experiential understanding beyond discursive mind. It aims to foster an existential questioning to achieve deeper insights.

43) Mental state:
Mental states are targeted in meditation for transformation and refinement. Practices aim to cultivate specific states like calm, focus, and awareness, or to lead to changes in traits, fostering long-term inner development and enlightenment.

44) Perception:
Perception is a key focus in meditation, especially in practices aimed at transforming how phenomena are experienced. Buddhist mindfulness and insight meditation explore perceptions of self and reality to uncover deeper truths and alleviate suffering.

45) Formless:
Formless meditation practices, such as formless mindfulness (無相念佛) in Buddhism, aim to transcend physical and conceptual forms to reach a higher state of awareness or connection with the divine, beyond linguistic and imagistic representations.

46) Sanskrit:
Sanskrit is the liturgical language in many Indian meditative traditions. Mantras and sacred texts are often recited in Sanskrit to preserve their phonetic integrity and spiritual potency, influencing practices like japa and related meditations.

47) Mandala (Mamdala):
A mandala is a structured geometric design used in Tantric meditation representing the universe. It serves as a visual focal point for meditation, aiding in the inner transformation and spiritual ascent of the practitioner.

48) Cloud:
[see source text or glossary: Cloud]

49) Heart:
The Heart Sūtra is a fundamental text in Mahayana Buddhism, including meditative recitations to understand emptiness and impermanence. It is often chanted in religious and meditation settings, serving as both a devotional and contemplative practice.

50) Human:
The human body is central to many meditative practices, particularly in Daoism and Yoga, which use body-centric techniques. These practices may focus on breath, bodily sensations, or the subtle body to achieve mental and spiritual transformation.

51) Japa:
Japa is a practice of repetitive mantra recitation in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. It is used to focus the mind, invoke spiritual qualities, and achieve deep meditative states, with the sound quality and rhythm being central to the practice.

52) State of mind:
Meditation practices aim to alter or cultivate specific states of mind, from relaxation and mental clarity to heightened awareness and spiritual insight. Different techniques focus on achieving these states through breath, mindfulness, or other methods.

53) Body part:
Specific body parts, like chakras or Chinese medicine’s meridians, are focal points in meditative practices. Visualization and awareness of these parts can direct energy, enhance healing, or support spiritual practices, particularly in Yoga and Daoism.

54) Immortality:
Immortality is a goal in some Daoist meditative practices, achieved through cultivating vital energies and harmonizing bodily functions. Techniques include breath control, visualization, and alchemical methods aimed at physical and spiritual longevity.

55) Salutation:
Salutations, such as 'Namo Amitābha Buddha,' are used in devotional meditation practice to honor and connect with Buddhas or deities. These verbal expressions signify respect and aim to invoke the presence or qualities of the divine figure.

56) Knowledge:
Knowledge in meditation refers to insight or understanding gained through practice. Various traditions seek knowledge about the nature of self, reality, and the universe, aiming for spiritual enlightenment and inner transformation.

57) Mysticism:
Mysticism involves practices and beliefs aiming at a direct, personal experience of the divine or ultimate reality. Meditative practices in mystical traditions seek to transcend ordinary perception and achieve intimate union with a higher consciousness.

58) Existence:
Meditation often explores the nature of existence, questioning inherent selfhood, connection with the universe, and the realities of impermanence and emptiness. Techniques aim at understanding the true nature of existence for spiritual liberation.

59) Longevity:
Longevity is a goal in certain meditative traditions, particularly Daoism. Practices like breath control, bodily visualization, and energy circulation aim to extend life and health, seen as intermediate steps to spiritual immortality.

60) Painting:
Paintings, especially in Tantric and devotional practices, can serve as meditation objects. Visual aids like mandalas, yantras, or depictions of deities help focus the mind and support visualisation in meditative practice.

61) Health:
Health benefits are often associated with regular meditative practices, including reduced stress, improved mental clarity, and enhanced physical well-being. Traditional meditative systems sometimes incorporate health and longevity as core elements of their practice.

62) Sutra:
Sūtras are sacred texts in Buddhism, often used in recitation and as meditation focuses. The Heart Sūtra, for example, is frequently chanted in meditation to cultivate insight into emptiness and impermanence.

63) Lotus:
In Buddhist meditation, the lotus is a symbol of purity and enlightenment. Visualisation of the lotus, particularly as a meditation object, helps practitioners focus their minds and connect with these spiritual qualities.

64) Logic (Logical):
Logic relaxation is considered by some as essential in meditation, implying a suspension of critical thought processes in favor of deeper, non-rational insights. Practices like keyword meditation and mindfulness often strive to reduce logical interference.

65) Avalokiteshvara (Avalokitesvara, Avalokita-ishvara):
Avalokiteśvara is a bodhisattva of compassion frequently visualized or invoked in Buddhist meditation. Practitioners recite his name, 'Namo Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva,' or visualize his form to cultivate compassion and gain spiritual insight.

66) Communication (Communicate, Communicated, Communicating):
Meditation can be seen as a form of inner communication, where practitioners engage with deeper layers of their mind or spiritual entities. Techniques aim to enhance this communication for transformation or to connect with divine realms.

67) Realization (Realisation):
Realisation in meditation refers to profound insights or understandings about the nature of self or reality. Practices aim to surpass ordinary cognition and reach these realizations, which are milestones on the path to enlightenment.

68) Discussion:
[see source text or glossary: Discussion]

69) Liberation:
Liberation, or moksha, is the ultimate goal in many meditative traditions, particularly in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Practices aim to free the practitioner from the cycle of birth and rebirth, achieving eternal peace and enlightenment.

70) Exhalation:
Exhalation in meditation is part of breath control practices, as seen in Daoist and Yogic traditions. Techniques like tǔnà involve specific patterns of exhalation and inhalation to regulate energy flow and achieve concentrated states.

71) Experience:
Experience plays a crucial role in meditation, as practitioners engage with various techniques to achieve direct and transformative experiences of heightened awareness, insight, or connection with the divine. Meditation aims to shift subjective experience substantially.

72) Inhalation:
Inhalation is crucial in many breath-focused meditation practices. Techniques regulate both inhalation and exhalation to control vital energies (such as prāṇa or qì), support concentration, and facilitate deeper states of meditation.

73) Science (Scientific):
Scientific interest in meditation has led to numerous studies on its psychological and physiological effects. Research often explores how meditative practices influence mental states, stress reduction, and cognitive functions, contributing to a broader understanding of meditation's benefits.

74) Theravada (Thera-vada):
Theravāda Buddhism emphasizes insight (vipassanā) and concentrative (samatha) meditation practices aiming at personal liberation through understanding the nature of existence. Mindfulness of breath and body are common techniques, foundational to this tradition.

75) Vipassana:
Vipassanā is insight meditation central to Theravāda Buddhism. It focuses on mindful observation of body, feelings, mind, and phenomena to cultivate deep understanding and insight into the impermanence, suffering, and non-self nature of all things.

[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 78]

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