The Towers of Yue

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Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: The Towers of Yue
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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Author:

Olivia Rovsing Milburn


Acta Orientalia:

(Founded in 1922 and published annually)

Full text available for: The Towers of Yue

Year: 2010 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.5351

Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0


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Summary of article contents:

1) Introduction

The paper, "The Towers of Yue" by Olivia Rovsing Milburn, explores the architectural history and significance of towers built in eastern and southern China within the context of the ancient Bai Yue kingdoms. These kingdoms, located in modern-day southern Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, and Guangdong provinces, exhibited distinct cultural identities and architectural styles. The construction of towers, initially developed by Huaxia people, signifies not just the assimilation of certain architectural practices but also highlights regional identities that differentiated ruling houses, particularly those claiming descent from King Goujian of Yue.

2) Architectural Symbolism: The Towers of the Zhou Confederacy

The term "tai" 臺, commonly translated as tower, terrace, or platform, refers to structures built by the rulers of the Zhou confederacy to demonstrate their power and authority. These towers marked a shift in the design of prestige buildings, representing a move from enclosed palaces to vertical constructions that dominated the landscape and added a new dimension to ceremonial spaces. Such construction became a privilege of the Son of Heaven and, later, feudal lords as they began to erect their own towers. This shift indicates the burgeoning ambition and autonomy of local rulers against the backdrop of the Zhou dynasty's decline.

3) The Gusu Tower: A Monument of Power

One of the most significant towers discussed is the Gusu Tower, built in the kingdom of Wu. The exact king responsible for its construction remains uncertain, but it is associated with both kings Helü and Fuchai of Wu. The Gusu Tower not only symbolized Wu's power but was also interwoven with narratives of conflict between Wu and Yue, particularly during the conquest of Wu by Yue, leading to various legends regarding its destruction. This tower reflects the intertwining of architecture and political machinations in ancient Chinese history.

4) King Goujian’s Architectural Legacy

King Goujian of Yue played a crucial role in the proliferation of towers in the kingdom of Yue, initiating the construction of several prominent structures. The towers served various purposes, including religious and observation functions, which were significant in asserting the king's identity and dominance. The titles and descriptions of these towers confirm their cultural importance, with Goujian's legacy being seen in later kingdoms that sought to associate themselves with his lineage and prowess.

5) The Cultural Impact of the Yue Diaspora

After the fall of the Yue kingdom, a diaspora of its ruling elite influenced the culture and architecture of the regions they settled in, particularly in Fujian. The rulers of the Minyue and Donghai kingdoms claimed descent from Goujian and contributed to the architectural landscape by constructing towers with local significance, though they are not mentioned in earlier texts. These new towers served as a physical embodiment of identity and cultural continuity between the ancient Yue kingdom and its successor states, showcasing the adaptive reuse of architectural knowledge.

6) Conclusion

Milburn's paper delineates the complex relationship between architecture and identity in ancient southern China, revealing how towers constructed by different kingdoms represented both cultural assimilation and the assertion of unique regional identities. By examining the significance of these structures, particularly those associated with the figures of Wu and Yue, the study highlights the architectural lineage that shaped the region's historical landscape. The legacy of these towers continues to inform our understanding of the interplay between power, identity, and architectural expression in ancient Chinese societies.

FAQ section (important questions/answers):

What is the main focus of this paper?

This paper examines the architectural history of towers in ancient non-Chinese Bai Yue kingdoms in southern China, exploring their significance in terms of assimilation and identity.

Who were the Bai Yue kingdoms and where were they located?

The Bai Yue kingdoms were ancient non-Chinese kingdoms situated in present-day southern Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, and Guangdong provinces during the Spring and Autumn period and the early Han dynasty.

What role did towers play in the Bai Yue kingdoms?

Towers served as symbols of identity and power, differentiating between groups claiming descent from King Goujian of Yue and those that did not, marking cultural and political significance.

Who were the initial builders of towers in ancient China?

The skills to construct towers were initially developed by the Huaxia people, with the first significant towers being built in the kingdom of Wu during the Spring and Autumn period.

What is the historical significance of Gusu Tower?

Gusu Tower, built during the kingdom of Wu, symbolized power and served as a government seat. It became associated with King Goujian of Yue and was linked to various legends of conflict between Wu and Yue.

How did the kingdoms of Minyue and Donghai relate to Yue?

Both kingdoms, established by refugees from the Yue royal family, claimed descent from King Goujian of Yue, implementing similar architectural and cultural practices, including tower construction.

What did the architectural diaspora from Yue contribute to less developed areas?

The architectural knowledge brought by Yue refugees led to significant changes in the landscape, including the construction of towers and other structures, impacting the culture of the local populations in Fujian.

Glossary definitions and references:

Oriental and Historical glossary list for “The Towers of Yue”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.

1) King:
The keyword refers to monarchs such as King Goujian of Yue who played a vital role in the architectural history of eastern and southern China by constructing notable towers. These kings often moved their capital or claimed significant heritage, signifying their power and lineage.

2) Dynasty:
Refers to ruling families such as the Han dynasty, which formally recognized smaller Southern kingdoms like Minyue and Nanyue. These dynasties impacted regional politics, culture, and architecture through campaigns, recognitions, and governance.

3) Fujian:
A province in present-day China where the Minyue, Donghai, and Dongyue kingdoms were located. It is noted for the presence of ancient towers constructed by the descendants of King Goujian of Yue, reflecting the architectural influence of the Yue ruling elite.

4) Poem:
Literary works often composed by various poets were inspired by the towers and other structures built by the Yue and Nanyue kings. These poems provided cultural context and romanticized the ancient architectural heritage.

5) Temple:
Related to the towers built with timber during the Song dynasty, specifically mentioned with the reuse of materials from structures like the Gusu Tower to build temples dedicated to Yue kings, illustrating the cultural significance and continuity.

6) Earth:
Used as a core material for building ancient towers, specifically pounded-earth bases that gave the appearance of multi-story structures, indicating architectural techniques of the time.

7) City:
Refers to the urban centers like Guangzhou (the capital of Nanyue) and others in Fujian where prominent towers were constructed, impacting the skyline and functioning within the city's cultural and political landscape.

8) Hunting:
Some towers, like those built by King Wuzhu of Minyue, were used as hunting lodges in the king's parks. These towers were sites from which hunts were launched and displayed royal prestige.

9) House:
Refers to royal houses like that of Nanyue, which had Chinese origins. The term helps differentiate the various southern kingdoms that claimed descent from notable ancestral lines such as King Goujian of Yue.

10) Court:
In the context of Nanyue, Zhao Tuo built towers to pay homage to the Han court, indicating diplomatic and symbolic associations with the ruling powers and showing loyalty.

11) Timber:
Used for constructing key structures including towers. For instance, the Gusu Tower was reportedly built using timbers supplied by the kingdom of Yue, a symbol of Yue's deceptive diplomatic strategies.

12) China:
Refers to the broader geopolitical context where the ancient kingdoms like Minyue and Nanyue were situated. These regions adopted and adapted architectural technologies from Central China, forming distinctive cultural identities.

13) Bird:
Symbolically significant, especially the red bird which appeared in Yue culture and mythology, representing auspicious omens and positive connotations seen in royal events.

14) Mountain:
Mountain sites were often chosen for the construction of towers due to their prominent and visible locations, such as the Gusutai built on Gusu Mountain. These mountains held religious or symbolic significance.

15) Zhejiang:
A present-day province in China that was part of the ancient kingdom of Yue where notable towers were constructed by the royal family of Yue, reflecting their architectural contributions.

16) Family:
Refers to royal families like those of Nanyue and Yue, who laid claim to significant lineages. Their descendents carried over the tradition of building towers as markers of their esteemed heritage.

17) Discussion:
Scholarly discussions revolve around the interpretation and significance of towers built by the southern kingdoms, examining cultural, architectural, and historical impacts observed through texts and excavations.

18) Literature:
Comprises ancient texts and poetry that reference the towers and kingdoms of the south, contributing to our understanding of their cultural and historical significance.

19) Knowledge:
Refers to advanced architectural, metal-working, and script-related technologies brought by the Yue diaspora to southern regions like Fujian, significantly influencing local cultures.

20) Conquest:
The conquest of Yue by Chu around 330 BCE led to a significant diaspora of the Yue ruling elite who carried their cultural and architectural knowledge to new regions, such as those in Fujian.

21) Hundred:
Used in quantifying distances or sizes in terms of traditional measures such as bu (paces), to describe tower bases. E.g., the Litai had dimensions recorded in hundreds of paces.

22) Heaven:
Often referenced in the symbolic or ritualistic functions of towers, the concept of Heaven was central to the legitimacy and spiritual activities of the rulers constructing such edifices.

23) Doubt:
Refers to scholarly debates on various topics, such as the exact ancestries of ruling houses or the historical interpretations of tower usages. These discussions underscore the complexities and uncertainties in ancient historical records.

24) Power:
Towers signified the power of the ruling elite, both as architectural dominance over the landscape and as symbols of political authority and cultural hegemony. E.g., Gusu Tower was a testament to Wu's power.

25) White:
As used in names like 'White Deer Tower' in Nanyue, it symbolizes auspiciousness or special circumstances, often associated with unique or notable occurrences celebrated by the ruling elites.

26) Image:
Towers crafted an image of power, dominance, and heritage for the ruling classes. They were more than buildings; they represented the social and political stature of their builders.

27) Daxue:
Refers to large state-run academies in modern China (translation: 'university'), often mentioned in acknowledging the contributions of educational institutes in compiling or preserving historical texts.

28) Sima (Shima):
Sima Qian, the historian who authored 'Shiji' (Records of the Grand Historian), documented historical aspects of ancient China, including kingdoms like Yue and their interactions.

29) Identity:
The construction of towers marked an identity for different groups, particularly those claiming lineage from King Goujian of Yue, signifying their cultural and historical differentiation.

30) Wealth:
The construction of towers, such as in Wu and Yue, showcased immense wealth and resource availability, signifying prosperity and capability of mobilizing large-scale workforce and materials.

31) Annal:
Texts like 'Chunqiu' and 'Zuozhuan' are annals or chronicles documenting historical events, including tower constructions by various feudal lords, contributing to our understanding of their significance.

32) Tree:
Trees were the primary materials in constructing significant structures and towers. For example, the Gusu Tower involved trees ornamented with gold and jade, emphasizing their importance.

33) Qian:
Sima Qian’s 'Shiji' records the detailed history of South-China kingdoms like Minyue and Nanyue, reflecting his meticulous chronicling which provides valuable insights.

34) Purification:
Ritual purification was a practice associated with towers like the Zhaijietai in Yue, used by the king for purification ceremonies as he entered or left the capital, highlighting their religious functions.

35) Destruction:
Towers like the Gusu were recorded to be destroyed as acts of revenge or reuse of materials symbolizing conquest, such as when the Yue army burnt the Gusu Tower after defeating Wu.

36) Recognition:
Han dynasty’s recognition of southern kingdoms like Minyue signifies the formalization of relationships and integration, leading to the official acknowledgment of new states and rulers.

37) Dimension:
The building of towers represented the prowess of embracing a new dimension— the air, beyond just dominating the land area, symbolizing an architectural and symbolic conquest of space.

38) Vermilion:
Red, particularly in ancient texts, symbolized auspicious connections, like the vermillion red bird, emphasizing the cultural and mythological significance assigned to these symbols.

39) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
The transition of some ancient tower sites into Buddhist temples, such as the conversion of King Goujian’s tower location for later religious buildings reflects cultural evolution and persistence of sacred sites.

40) Pottery:
High-quality ancient pottery found in areas around former tower bases in regions like Shaowu attests to the advanced craftsmanship and cultural significance associated with these sites.

41) Gesture:
Building towers such as the Chao Hantai by Zhao Tuo was a gesture of demonstrating loyalty and homage to the Han court, reflecting political and diplomatic stances through architecture.

42) Nature:
The presence of towers and their associated legends often emphasize their integration with natural elements, like parks, hunting lodges in forests, and interactions with wildlife, forming part of the royal narrative.

43) Memory:
Poems and records serve as memorials for historical towers and their significance, capturing the cultural memory and romanticizing the historical narrative of kingdoms like Yue and Nanyue.

44) Poetry (Poetic, Poetical):
Inspired by significant towers and historical events, poets like Li Bai immortalized such structures through poetry, affording them a lasting cultural and literary legacy.

45) Cloud:
Towers were built high enough to 'reach the floating clouds' as described in historical accounts, indicating their prominence and the impressive scope of ancient architecture.

46) Sight:
Towers provided a vantage point to survey lands and exhibited the reach of the ruler’s dominion; they were landmarks that altered the visual landscape, symbolizing power.

47) Brick:
Used alongside earth in the advanced architectural technologies that were brought south by the Yue diaspora, transforming local building practices and construction techniques.

48) Space:
Towers represented the conquest of not just land but also vertical space, signifying the ruler’s ability to command extensive areas and control visually impressive structures.

49) Shang:
Used contextually to refer to historical references, like King Zhou of Shang’s Deer Tower, which was indicative of towering constructions symbolizing royal extravagance and rule styles.

50) Ying:
King Ying of Minyue ruled during the crisis period and was noted for his contributions and involvement in the power struggles within the southern Yue-influenced regions.

51) Shan (San):
Shan (mountain) locations were selected for tower constructions owing to their symbolically elevated and visually dominant positions, like Gusu Mountain for the Gusu Tower.

52) Fire:
The destruction of towers like those in Wu, often by fire during conquests or coups, symbolizes the conflict and cultural warfare between ancient southern kingdoms and the forces acting against them.

53) Crow:
Red crows appear in legends surrounding the towers of Yue; these birds carried symbolic meaning in ancient southern mythologies, such as the omen seen by King Goujian.

54) Dead:
References to towers often allude to human sacrifices or the deadly costs of construction, highlighting the severe human toll that these monumental architectural projects could demand.

55) Gate:
The towers and their corresponding ruling structures often had city gates associated with them, as these marked limits and entryways to the controlled and protected territories.

56) Ritual purification:
Specific to towers like Zhaijietai, which were explicitly built for the purpose of ritual purification, used by the kings of Yue during significant ceremonial entries and exits from their capital.

57) Lunar Month:
The concept relates to towers like the Chao Hantai, where Zhao Tuo reportedly climbed on the first day of every lunar month to pay homage to the Han emperor, indicating cyclical ceremonial practices.

58) Self-identification:
Towers helped the ruling elite of Minyue, Donghai, and Dongyue assert their self-identification by linking their lineage to King Goujian of Yue and marking their cultural territory.

59) Manifest (Manifested, Manifestation, Manifesting):
The construction of towers represented a physical and visible manifestation of a ruler's power, wealth, and influence, as exemplified by the Gusu Tower in Wu kingdom.

60) Determination:
King Goujian’s determined building efforts reflected his resolve to govern, show strength, and reinstate his authority post-conflict with tactics that included constructing imposing towers.

61) Civilization:
The architecture, including towers of the Yue and Nanyue, showcased the advanced level of civilization that these southern kingdoms achieved, comparable to their northern counterparts.

62) Divination:
Towers in ancient Yue, like the Guaiyoutai, were used for divination ceremonies to observe celestial phenomena and undertake ritual practices essential to the cultural and religious activities of the kingdom.

63) Perception:
The shifting perceptions of ritual importance reflected in the change from large enclosed religious spaces to more publicly visible tall structures, like towers, indicating a transformation in societal rituals.

64) Reflection:
Literature and historical texts often reflect on the role and symbolism of towers in ancient societies, offering insights into cultural narratives and interpretations of power and identity.

65) Experience:
Historical experiences of tower constructions, from initial build to destruction and reuses, offer nuanced insights into the socio-political and cultural landscape of ancient kingdom rulers.

66) Mythology:
Associated with towers like the symbolic significance of red birds in Yue culture; such mythological narratives reveal the cultural beliefs and legendary stories tied to these towers.

67) Sacrifice:
The practice of human and ritual sacrifices tied to some towers denotes their role in significant religious and ceremonial practices of the ruling elite, mirroring power and divine connection.

68) Residence:
Certain towers and their bases were associated with royal residences, incorporated into palace grounds like in Wu, augmenting their administrative and ceremonial significance.

69) Existence:
Refers to the physical presence and archaeological remnants of ancient towers, many of which have been dated and verified, affirming their roles in historical and cultural narratives.

70) Confusion (Confused):
Chronicled frequent confusion in imperial records and gazetteers often leads to debates about the origins, interpretations, and historical narratives surrounding towers like those in Nanyue and Yue.

71) Preceptor:
Literary figures like Yao Guangxiao, a Buddhist monk and Grand Preceptor, composed works on the towers, illustrating the intersection of religious and cultural dialogue around these structures.

72) Monarchy:
The ruling monarchy of Yue and its descendant states symbolized its authority through the construction of towers, reiterating their royal lineage and asserting dominance over newly acquired lands.

73) Minister:
[see source text or glossary: Minister]

74) Platform:
[see source text or glossary: Platform]

75) External:
[see source text or glossary: External]

[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 120]

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