A Comparative Analysis of Shina and Kashmiri Vocabularies
Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: A Comparative Analysis of Shina and Kashmiri Vocabularies
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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Summary of article contents:
Introduction
This paper presents a comparative analysis of the vocabularies of Shina and Kashmiri languages, focusing on phonological and lexical data across various dialects. The research includes vocabulary lists collected from ten dialects of both languages, examining the degree of lexical variation and the influence of language contact with surrounding tongues such as Burushaski, Persian, and Tibetan. The authors emphasize the significance of loanwords and grammatical features that arise from such contact, ultimately aiming to understand the broader linguistic landscape in which Shina and Kashmiri exist.
Influence of Language Contact
One of the paper's important discussions centers on loanwords and language influence. The data shows that Shina dialects exhibit various loanwords from neighboring languages, indicating significant contact over time. The authors specifically identify influences from Burushaski, Persian, and Tibetan, noting that while all dialects of Shina reflect some interaction with Burushaski, the extent varies. This linguistic interplay highlights the adaptability and evolution of Shina vocabulary in response to surrounding cultures and languages.
Phonological Development
Another critical aspect of the study is the differences in phonological development among the dialects of Shina and Kashmiri. The authors detail how specific phonological changes, such as the treatment of initial consonant clusters, vary between the two languages. While Shina has seen a reduction or alteration of these clusters, Kashmiri retains more of the original Old Indo-Aryan structure. This divergence presents significant implications for tracing the historical evolution of these languages and understanding their unique linguistic identities within the broader Indo-Aryan family.
Grammatical Features
The paper further examines distinct grammatical features that emerge from the interaction of Shina and Kashmiri. The study identifies a phenomenon in Shina dialects where subject-verb agreement is present, an innovation potentially influenced by Burushaski, unlike Kashmiri, which typically exhibits a split-ergative system. This difference highlights how language contact can shape grammatical structures, leading to newfound complexities in verb agreements within dialects of Shina.
Cognate Analysis
Additionally, the study includes a thorough cognate analysis that reveals unexpected similarities and differences in shared vocabulary. The data suggests that while Shina and Kashmiri possess a modest number of cognates, those that do exist often diverge significantly in their phonological forms and meanings. The results indicate a more complex relationship between the two languages than previously assumed, challenging simple notions of relatedness within the Indo-Aryan languages.
Conclusion
Overall, this comparative analysis of Shina and Kashmiri vocabulary provides valuable insights into the intricate web of language contact, phonological development, and grammatical variation. By highlighting the influences of surrounding languages and analyzing shared and divergent features, the authors make a compelling case for further scholarly focus on these languages and their dialects. The findings underline the adaptability of language as a dynamic entity influenced by social, historical, and geographical factors, encouraging additional research in the field of linguistics.
Original source:
This page is merely a summary which is automatically generated hence you should visit the source to read the original article which includes the author, publication date, notes and references.
Ruth Laila Schmidt
Acta Orientalia:
(Founded in 1922 and published annually)
Full text available for: A Comparative Analysis of Shina and Kashmiri Vocabularies
Year: 2008 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.7372
Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0
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FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What is the main focus of the study on Shina and Kashmiri?
The study primarily focuses on a comparative analysis of core vocabulary between ten dialects of Shina and Kashmiri, examining their lexical and phonological differences as well as influences from surrounding languages.
How many dialects of Shina were included in this research?
The research includes six dialects of Shina: Gilgiti, Kohistani, Astori, Guresi, Drasi, and Brokskat, showcasing a range of vocabulary and phonological variations across these dialects.
What languages influenced the Shina dialects according to the study?
Shina has been influenced significantly by Burushaski, Kashmiri, Persian, and Tibetan, as evidenced by the presence of loanwords from these surrounding languages.
What measures were used to analyze lexical similarities?
The study calculated lexical similarity percentages among dialects based on shared core vocabulary items, revealing varying degrees of relatedness among Shina dialects and between Shina and Kashmiri.
What types of vocabulary were examined in the study?
The vocabulary examined encompasses categories such as body parts, kin terms, human artifacts, weather terms, numbers, and other semantic areas to provide a holistic linguistic overview.
What is indicated by the difference in cognates between Shina and Kashmiri?
The low number of cognates and distinct phonological development between Shina and Kashmiri suggests that they have evolved separately and are not closely related despite some lexical similarities.
How did the researchers collect the vocabulary data?
Vocabulary data was collected in the early 1980s from native speakers across various dialects, using elicitation techniques in Urdu, which was subsequently analyzed and documented.
What grammatical features of Shina were noted in the analysis?
Salient grammatical features observed include agent case markers, subject-verb concord, and suffix-noun concord in possessives, often reflecting contact with Kashmiri and other languages.
Glossary definitions and references:
Oriental and Historical glossary list for “A Comparative Analysis of Shina and Kashmiri Vocabularies”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
1) Kashmiri (Kasmiri):
Kashmiri is one of the primary languages analyzed in the provided text, highlighting its unique phonological and lexical features when compared to Shina.
2) Dialect:
The text discusses several dialects of Shina and Kashmiri, comparing lexical and phonological data across these dialects to understand language contact phenomena.
3) Language:
The main focus of the paper is on the Shina and Kashmiri languages, examining their core vocabularies and identifying influences from other surrounding languages.
4) Agent:
The concept of the agent case is discussed in terms of its use in the Shina dialects, with variations such as Agent I (sV ~ -s ~ -es) and Agent II (-e ~ -i ~ -o).
5) Indus:
The Kohistani dialect of Shina has been influenced significantly by Pashto and Indus Kohistani languages, as evident from shared vocabulary and phonological features.
6) Indu (Imdu):
[see source text or glossary: Indu]
7) Tibetan:
The paper mentions the influence of languages like Tibetan on Brokskat, one of the Shina dialects that shows significant lexical borrowing from Purik, a Tibetan dialect.
8) Kumar:
Vijay Kumar Kaul is one of the co-authors of the paper, contributing to the collection and analysis of the Kashmiri vocabulary data.
9) Kaul (Koul):
Omkar N. Koul has previous works mentioned in the references, which discuss aspects of Kashmiri linguistics and support the current study’s findings.
10) Aryan:
The text examines linguistic features and vocabulary of the Indo-Aryan languages, particularly focusing on Shina and Kashmiri and their historical development.
11) Similarity:
The study measures lexical similarity across different dialects of the Shina and Kashmiri languages, highlighting areas of significant overlap and divergence.
12) Tree:
The word lists examined include names for natural elements like trees, e.g., 'muto' in Gilgiti Shina and 'tom' in other dialects, showing lexical variation.
13) Pakistan:
The research encompasses dialects of Shina located in modern-day Pakistan, including Kohistani and Gilgiti, to understand their linguistic properties.
14) House:
The word for 'house' in different dialects of Shina shows variations such as 'goot' in Gilgiti and 'goos' in Kohistani, illustrating the lexical diversity.
15) Mountain:
Terms related to geographical features, such as 'mountain', are examined to show lexical influences and variations across dialects.
16) Kashmir:
Situated in the mountainous region between India and Pakistan, Kashmir is central to the linguistic study of Shina and Kashmiri languages.
17) Grammar:
Grammatical features such as agent case markers, subject-verb concord, and possessive case concord are analyzed to understand contact phenomena in Shina.
18) Evening:
Different dialects have unique words for 'evening': 'saam' in Gilgiti Shina and 'bazuko' in Drasi, pointing to the lexical diversity across regions.
19) Linguistics:
The paper falls within the field of linguistics, aiming to compare and analyze the vocabularies and grammatical features of Shina and Kashmiri languages.
20) Summer:
The text briefly mentions the migration patterns and high-altitude pastures of Shina speakers, related to their seasonal summer movements.
21) Village:
In the study, 'village' has dialectal variations like 'kui' in Gilgiti and 'gaam' in Drasi, showing how such terms evolve in different linguistic environments.
22) Forest:
The word for 'forest' varies across dialects, with 'jeel' in Gilgiti and 'myaal' in Guresi, reflecting lexical differences within Shina and its dialects.
23) Earth:
Terms related to natural elements like 'earth' highlight contact phenomena, such as the word 'sum' in Gilgiti Shina and 'sum' in Guresi.
24) Pari:
The paper mentions that 'pari' meaning 'fairy' is a borrowing from Persian, found in the Gilgiti dialect of Shina, demonstrating Persian influence.
25) Rice (Rce):
The word for 'rice' shows dialectal variations, such as 'bat' in Gilgiti and 'brim' in Drasi, indicating lexical changes in core vocabulary items.
26) Bird:
Lexical items for animals like 'bird' are examined to show variation, with 'brin' in Gilgiti and 'caaI' in Guresi dialects of Shina.
27) Rain (Rainy):
Different words for 'rain' like 'ajo' in Gilgiti Shina and 'char'chu' in Brokskat demonstrate the lexical diversity within Shina dialects.
28) Salt (Salty):
The term for 'salt' varies, with words like 'pajuu' in Gilgiti Shina and 'luuni' in Kohistani, showing lexical borrowing and innovation.
29) Bitter:
The word 'bitter' has different forms in Shina dialects, such as 'cito' in Guresi and 'tiito' in Brokskat, reflecting phonological changes.
30) Copper:
The term for 'copper' like 'traam' in Guresi and 'zams' in Astori demonstrates loanword adaptation from other languages into Shina dialects.
31) Indian:
Indian context is significant as the research encompasses dialects spoken in India, such as Kashtawari, Poguli, and Siraji.
32) Valley:
Geographical features like valleys are mentioned as areas of language contact, such as the Gures Valley where contact with Tibetan is noted.
33) Horse:
The word for 'horse' like 'aspo' in Gilgiti and 'aavs' in Brokskat shows sound changes and possible loanword influences within Shina dialects.
34) Wheel:
Words related to human artifacts, such as 'wheel' in Gilgiti Shina 'carko' and its dialectal variants provide insights into technological diffusion.
35) Human:
Terms related to humans such as 'musaa' for 'man' demonstrate how core vocabulary can differ within related dialects.
36) Ati:
The word 'athi' in Kashmiri and 'hat' in Gilgiti Shina both mean 'hand' but show distinct phonological developments in related languages.
37) Fish:
The study notes differences in words for 'fish', like 'chumo' in Gilgiti Shina and 'nyaa' in Brokskat, revealing lexical diversity.
38) Fire:
Words for elements like 'fire', such as 'phuu' in Gilgiti Shina, illustrate variations and possible loanwords in Shina dialects.
39) Lightning:
Vocabulary differences for natural phenomena like 'bicus' for 'lightning' in Shina dialects show phonological changes across regions.
40) Yellow:
The study shows the word 'yellow' in different dialects like 'halijo' in Shina and 'hal'dro' in other dialects, revealing phonological changes.
41) Breast:
The term for 'breast' like 'mamu' in Guresi Shina and 'tsutsu' in Siraji demonstrates lexical borrowing and variation.
42) Delhi:
The text does not directly mention Delhi, but various dialects spoken in India, including those studied in the Kashmiri linguistic research, relate to this region.
43) Rati:
Common terms like 'raati' for 'night' show consistency and minor variations across Shina dialects, reflecting deep-rooted lexical similarities.
44) Goat:
The word 'goat' is examined with variations like 'mugar' in Gilgiti and 'kastaa' in Brokskat to understand lexical changes within Shina dialects.
45) Kun:
The term 'koon' meaning 'arrow' found in Kashmiri dialects is compared with its use in Shina to show lexical differences.
46) New Delhi:
The text does not directly relate to New Delhi, but the research conducted in Indian territories encompasses areas that connect to the broader linguistic landscape, which includes New Delhi.
47) Moustache (Mustache):
The word 'moustache', like 'phune' in Gilgiti and 'mo:i:' in Siraji, reveals phonological and lexical diversity within Shina dialects.
48) Sparrow:
The word 'sparrow' shows differences, such as 'cayaa' in Kohistani Shina and 'caaI' in Guresi, reflecting lexical variation.
49) Patani:
The dialect Patani in Indus Kohistan shares vocabulary with Kohistani Shina, such as 'gha'na' for 'item held in trust'.
50) Black:
In the text, Kashmiri and Poguli 'black' is referred to with similar roots showing phonological changes, like 'kyono' in Brokskat.
51) Child (Children):
Words for 'child' like 'baal' in Gilgiti Shina and 'niuk' in Siraji illustrate differences in core vocabulary within related dialects.
52) Grass:
Differences in terms for 'grass', such as 'kac' in Gilgiti and 'gaas' in Guresi, indicate lexical variability in the language contact phenomena.
53) Mora:
Differences in pitch accent across dialects are examined, including the presence of mora in Shina dialects where the high pitch is shown using an acute accent.
54) Cold:
Words for 'cold', like 'sidalo' in Gilgiti and 'cyya' in Brokskat, highlight lexical and phonological variations among Shina dialects.
55) Book:
The text does not provide specific details about 'book', but lexical comparisons generally include key vocabulary such as this.
56) Tal:
The word 'daal' refers to 'ashes' as discussed in Shina dialects, 'daal' being a term used in Gilgiti and Astori with slight variations.
57) Ate:
The word 'aate' meaning 'flour' appears in the supplementary list of Shina lexical items, illustrating core vocabulary variations.
58) Shash (Sas, Sash, Sad, Shas, Shad):
The word 'saas' meaning 'thousand' is a term used across Shina dialects, showing commonalities in core numerals.
59) Body part:
The study includes terms for body parts like 'hat' for 'hand' in Gilgiti Shina and 'athi' in Kashmiri to highlight phonological changes.
60) Environment:
Environmental terms such as 'rain', 'mountain', and 'tree' are compared across Shina and Kashmiri dialects to show lexical diversity.
61) Shoulder:
The word for 'shoulder', like 'muth' in Gilgiti and 'phak' in Brokskat, demonstrates lexical variations in Shina dialects.
62) Scorpion:
The word for 'scorpion', such as 'karaato' in Gilgiti and 'bic' in Drasi, shows lexical borrowing and diversity within dialects.
63) Hundred:
Numerals are part of the core vocabulary studied, with 'hundred' appearing in Shina dialects, showcasing similarities like 'sal' in Gilgiti.
64) Weather:
Terms related to weather, such as 'star' ('taaro' in Gilgiti), are compared to understand phonological and lexical changes across dialects.
65) Tarini:
The word 'tharini' meaning 'churn' in Shina is analyzed to understand loanwords and lexical changes from languages like Burushaski.
66) Pahari:
Siraji, classified as Western Pahari, shows influences from both Shina and Kashmiri, indicating language contact phenomena.
67) Mysore:
Mysore is referenced indirectly through N. Ramaswami’s work on Brokskat, indicating research contributions from Mysore institutions.
68) Animal:
The study includes terms for animals, like 'mugar' for 'goat' in Gilgiti and variations like 'kastaa', showing lexical diversity.
69) Finger:
Words for body parts such as 'finger' are examined, showing variations like 'hagui' in Gilgiti Shina and 'guli' in Brokskat.
70) Asman (Ashman):
The term for 'sky' like 'asman' in Gilgiti and Brokskat shows lexicon sharing across different dialects.
71) Khari (Kha-ri):
The term 'khari' means 'down(hill)' in Shina, with lexical variations across dialects, such as 'kher' in Guresi.
72) India:
The paper encompasses dialects spoken in regions of India, highlighting Kashmiri and Siraji vocabulary.
73) Mouse:
Terms for 'mouse', like 'muuji' in Gilgiti and 'mouqo' in Brokskat, illustrate variations within Shina dialects.
74) Honey:
The word for 'honey', such as 'machi' in Gilgiti, shows lexical similarities and variations within Shina and related languages.
75) Cloud:
The term for 'cloud' like 'burgaal' in Gilgiti Shina and 'bicus' in Guresi shows phonological and lexical diversity.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 87]